The Relationship between Tectonic Subsidence and BSR of Upper Neogene in the Deep-Water Area of the Northern Continental Slope, South China Sea

BSR （Bottom Simulating Reflector） occurs widely in the strata since the late Miocene in the deep-water area of the northern continental slope of South China Sea （SCS）. It is an important seismic reference mark which identifies the gas hydrate and its distribution influenced by the tectonic movements. Single-point basin modeling was conducted using 473 points in the study area. To discuss the relationships between the tectonic subsidence and BSR, the volume and rate of tectonic subsidence in each geological time have been simulated. The results show that there are three tectonic accelerate subsidence processes in the study area since the late Miocene, especially since 1.8Ma the tectonic subsidence accelerates more apparently. Since the Late Miocene to Pleistocene, the rate of tectonic subsidence in deep-water underwent a transformation from weak to strong. The ratio of tectonic subsidence to the total subsidence was relatively high （65-70%）. Through the superposition of the BSR developed areas and the contours of tectonic subsidence in this area, it was discovered that more than 80% of BSR tend to be distributed at the slope break or depression-uplift structural transfer zone and the average tectonic subsidence rate ranges from 70 m/Ma to 125 m/Ma.

Three-stage tectonic subsidence and its implications for the evolution of conjugate margins of the southwest subbasin,South China Sea

To reveal the tectonic characteristics of the continental margins in the southwest subbasin(SWB)of the South China Sea,a long high-resolution seismic profile was studied using empty basin subsidence.We find that tectonic subsidence features on both margins are uniformly divided into three stages:(1)slow subsidence from Tg to 18.5 Ma(synrift stage);(2)extremely slow subsidence/uplift from18.5 to 16 Ma(spreading stage);and(3)accelerated subsidence from 16 to 0 Ma(post-spreading stage).This feature differs from the classic tectonic subsidence pattern of rifted basins,which exhibits fast subsidence during synrift stage and slow subsidence during the post-rift stage.The tectonic uplift occurred during the spreading stage and the magnitude increased from the continent to the ocean,which is likely related to mantle flow during seafloor spreading.We propose that lower crustal flow played a significant role in the tectonic evolution of the continental margins of the SWB.The lower crust of the SWB margins was warmer and therefore weaker,and more prone to flow beneath the faulting center,which compensated for the upper crustal thinning caused by brittle faulting during the synrift period and thus reduced the tectonic subsidence rate.During the spreading stage,faulting attenuated rapidly,and a necking zone appeared at the continentocean transition formed by lithospheric extension.With upwelling asthenosphere,small-scale secondary mantle convection occurred under the necking zone,which raised the continental margin isotherms and increased the buoyancy.Simultaneously,secondary mantle convection lifted the overriding crust,thus the overall subsidence rate decreased sharply or even reversed to uplift.After seafloor spreading,the effect of mantle convection faded away,and sediment loading drove the lower crust to flow landward.Thermal relaxation,lower crust flow,and vanish of secondary mantle convection together led to rapid subsidence in this stage.

The influences of the tectonic subsidence and the siltation on the situation of preventing flood disasters in the Dongting Lake area

With the long-term data of the geodetic sea level measurements undertaken in the Dongting Basin and the recent sediment data of Dongting Lake, we analyze the tectonic subsidence rate of the Dongting Basin and the sedimentary rate of Dongting Lake. From the point of view of geomorphology and hydrogeology, we distinguish the two different spatial concepts between 'the basin of Dongting Lake' and 'the Dongting Basin'. Then, we discuss the influences of the tectonic subsidence and the siltation on the levees and the space of storing flood. The better quality of levees is required due to the tectonic subsidence and the siltation, and the difficulties of preventing flood disasters are increasing. The space of storing flood is not affected by the tectonic subsidence, but by the siltation. At present, the sedimentary rate of Dongting Lake is higher than the tectonic subsidence rate of the Dongting Basin. The tectonic subsidence capacity of the Dongting Basin counteracts a part of sedimentary capacity, and the shrinking tendency of Dongting Lake is restrained to a certain extent, but the tectonic subsidence is harmful to the situation of preventing flood disasters in the Dongting Lake area.

Subsidence history and forming mechanism of anomalous tectonic subsidence in the Bozhong depression, Bohaiwan basin

The Bozhong depression of the Bohaiwan basin belongs to a family of extensional basins in East China, but is quite different from other parts of the basin. The Cenozoic subsidence of the depression is controlled by a combination of lithospheric thinning and polycyclic strike-slip movements. Three episodic rifts have been identified, i.e. Paleocence-early Eocene, middle-late Eocene and Oligocene age. The depression underwent syn-rift and post-rift stages, but two episodic dextral movement events of the strike-slip faults modify the subsidence of the Bozhong depression since the Oligocene. The early dextral movement of the Tan-Lu fault associated with crustal extension resulted in accelerated subsidence during the time of deposition of the Dongying Formation with a maximum thickness of 4000 m. A late reactivation of dextral movement of the Tan-Lu fault began in late Miocene (about 12 Ma), which resulted in the intense subsidence of Minghuazhen Formation and Quaternary. In addition, dynamic mantle convection-driven topography also accelerated the post-rift anomalous subsidence since the Miocene (24.6 Ma). Our results indicate that the primary control on rapid subsidence both during the rift and post-rift stages in the Bozhong depression originates from a combination of multiple episodic crustal extension and polycyclic dextral movements of strike-slip faults, and dynamic topography.

Tectonic subsidence of the Zhu I Sub-basin in the Pearl River Mouth Basin, northern South China Sea

The Pearl River Mouth Basin, which is situated on the northern margin of the South China Sea, has attracted great attention not only because of its tectonic setting but also because of its abundant hydrocarbon resources. We have analyzed the Cenozoic tectonic subsidence history of 4 drilled wells and 43 artificial wells from the Zhu 1 Sub-basin of the Pearl River Mouth Basin by back-stripping, using newly interpreted seismic profiles. We also calculated the average tectonic sub- sidence rates of the four sags in the Zhu 1 Sub-basin. The rifting and post-rifting stages are separated by abrupt changes in the tectonic subsidence curves and average subsidence rates. In the eastem sags of the Zhu 1 Sub- basin, tectonic subsidence started to slow at ca. 30 Ma, compared with ca. 23.8 Ma in the western sags. This probably corresponds to the timing of break-up and suggests that tiffing in the Pearl River Mouth Basin ended earlier in the eastern sags than in the western sags. Anomalously accelerated tectonic subsidence occurred at 17.5-16.4 Ma during the post-tiffing stage, with average subsidence rates as high as 301.9 m/Myr. This distin- guishes the Pearl River Mouth Basin from classical Atlantic passive continental marginal basins, which demonstrate exponentially decaying post-rift tectonic subsidence.

Cenozoic tectonic subsidence in the Southern Continental Margin, South China Sea

We analyzed two recently acquired multi- channel seismic profiles across the Dangerous Grounds and the Reed Bank area in the South China Sea. Reconstruction of the tectonic subsidence shows that the southern continental margin can be divided into three stages with variable subsidence rate. A delay of tectonic subsidence existed in both areas after a break-up, which was likely related to the major mantle convection during seafloor spreading, that was triggered by the secondary mantle convection below the continental margin, in addition to the variation in lithospheric thickness. Mean-while, the stage with delayed subsidence rate differed along strikes. In the Reed Bank area, this stage is between 32-23.8 Ma, while in the Dangerous Grounds, it was much later （between 19-15.5 Ma）. We believe the propagated rifting in the South China Sea dominated the changes of this delayed subsidence rate stage.

Distribution and Forming Model of Fluvial Terrace in the Huangshui Catchment and its Tectonic Indication

The Huang Shui River, a main tributary of the Yellow River, crosses a series of tectonically subsided and uplifted areas that show different patterns of terrace formation. The distribution of fluvial terrace of the Huang Shui River is studied through topographic and sedimentologic terrace mapping. Three terraces in the Haiyan Basin, four terraces in the Huangyuan Basin, 19 terraces in the Xi＇ning Basin （the four high terraces may belong to another river）, nine terraces in the Ping＇an Basin, five terraces in the Ledu Basin and 12 terraces in the Minhe Basin are recognized. Sedimentology research shows that the geomorphologic and sedimentological pattern of the Huang Shui River, which is located at the margin of Tibet, are different from that of the rivers at other regions. The formation process of the terrace is more complicated at the Huang Shui catchment： both accumulation terrace and erosion terrace were formed in each basin and accumulation terraces were developed in some basins when erosion terraces were formed in other basins, indicating fluvial aggradation may occur in some basins simultaneously with river incision in other basins. A conceptual model of the formation process of these two kinds of fluvial terraces at Huang Shui catchment is brought forward in this paper. First, the equilibrium state of the river is broken because of climatic change and/or tectonic movement, and the river incises in all basins in the whole catchment until reaching a new equilibrium state. Then, the downstream basin subsides quickly and the equilibrium state is broken again, and the river incises at upstream basins while the river accumulates at the subsidence basin quickly until approaching a new equilibrium state again. Finally, the river incises in the whole catchment because of climatic change and/or tectonic movement and the accumulation terrace is formed at the subsidence basin while the erosion terrace is formed at other basins. The existence of the accumulation terrace implied the tectonic subsidence in the sub-basins in Huang Shui catchment. These tectonic subsidence movements gradually developed from the downstream Minhe Basin to the upstream Huangyuan Basin. Dating the terrace sequence has potential to uncover the relationship between the subsidence in the catchment and the regional tectonic at the northeastern Tibetan Plateau.

Formation of the Zengmu and Beikang Basins,and West Baram Line in the southwestern South China Sea margin

The Zengmu and Beikang basins,separated by the West Baram Line(WBL)in the southwestern South China Sea margin,display distinct geological and geophysical features.However,the nature of the basins and the WBL are debated.Here we explore this issue by conducting the stratigraphic and structural interpretation,faults and subsidence analysis,and lithospheric finite extension modelling using seismic data.Results show that the WBL is a trans-extensional fault zone comprising normal faults and flower structures mainly active in the Late Eocene to Early Miocene.The Zengmu Basin,to the southwest of the WBL,shows an overall synformal geometry,thick folded strata in the Late Eocene to Late Miocene(40.4-5.2 Ma),and pretty small normal faults at the basin edge,which imply that the Zengmu Basin is a foreland basin under the Luconia and Borneo collision in the Sarawak since the Eocene.Furthermore,the basin exhibits two stages of subsidence(fast in 40.4-30 Ma and slow in 30-0 Ma);but the amount of observed subsidence and heat flow are both greater than that predicted by crustal thinning.The Beikang Basin,to the NE of the WBL,consists of the syn-rift faulted sub-basins(45-16.4 Ma)and the post-rift less deformed sequences(16.4-0 Ma).The heat flow(~60 mW/m2)is also consistent with that predicted based on crustal thinning,inferring that it is a rifted basin.However,the basin shows three stages of subsidence(fast in 45-30 Ma,uplift in 30-16.4 Ma,and fast in 16.4-0 Ma).In the uplift stage,the strata were partly folded in the Late Oligocene and partly eroded in the Early Miocene,which is probably caused by the flexural bulging in response to the paleo-South China Sea subduction and the subsequent Dangerous Grounds and Borneo collision in the Sabah to the east of the WBL.

Adapting cities to sea level rise： A perspective from Chinese deltas

In recent years, intensifying waterlogging, salt water intrusion, wetland loss, and ecosystem degradation in Chinese delta cities and adjacent regions have generated the pressing need to create an urban form that is suited to both current and future climates incorporating sea level rise. However, adaptation planning uptake is slow. This is particularly unfortunate because patterns of urban form interact with mean sea level rise （MSLR） in ways that reduce or intensify its impact. There are currently two main barriers that are significant in arresting the implementation of adaptation planning with reference to the MSLR projections composed of geomorphologic MSLR projections and eustatic MSLR projections from global climate warming, and making a comprehensive risk assessment of MSLR projections. The present review shows recent progresses in mapping MSLR projections and their risk assessment approaches on Chinese delta cities, and then a perspective of adapting these cities to MSLR projections as following six aspects. 1） The geomorphologic MSLR projections are contributed by the natural tectonic subsidence projections and the MSLR projections by anthropogenic geomorphologic change. The former needs to be updated in a global framework. The latter is accumulated by land subsidence from underground water depletion, water level fall caused by the erosion of riverbeds from a sediment supply decline attributed to the construction of watershed dams, artificial sand excavation, water level raise by engineering projects including land reclamation, deep waterway regulation, and fresh water reservoirs. 2） Controlling MSLR projections by anthropogenic geomorphologic changes. 3） The IPCC AR5 RCPs MSLRs scenarios are expected to be projected to the local eustatic MSLR projections on the Chinese deltas. 4） The MSLR projections need to be matched to a local elevation datum. 5） Modeling approaches of regional river-sea numerical with semi- analytical hydrodynamics, estuarine channel network, system dynamics and adaptation points are perspective. 6） Adaptation planning to MSLR projections requires a comprehensive risk assessment of the risk of flood, fresh water supply shortage, coastal erosion, wetland loss, siltation of ports and waterway in Chinese delta cities and adjacent regions.

Development of the Miocene Guangle Carbonate Platform in the South China Sea:Architecture and Controlling Factors

This study investigates the evolution of the Miocene Guangle carbonate platform(or Triton Horst)of the northwestern South China Sea margin.The platform is located at a junction area surrounded by Yinggehai basin,Qiongdongnan basin and Zhongjiannan basin.Well and regional geophysical data allow the identification of the morphologic and stratigraphic patterns.The Guangle carbonate platform was initiated on a tectonic uplift during the Early Miocene.The early platform was limited at Mesozoic granitic basement,pre-Paleogene sediments localized tectonic uplift and was small extension at the beginning stage.While during the Middle Miocene,the carbonate buildup flourished,and grow a thrived and thick carbonate succession overlining the whole Guangle Uplift.The isolated platforms then united afterward and covered an extensive area of several tens of thousands of square kilometers.However,it terminated in the Late Miocene.What are the control factors on the initiation,growth and demise of the Guangle carbonate platform?The onset of widespread carbonate deposits largely reflected the Early Miocene transgression linked with early post-rift subsidence and the opening of the South China Sea.Stressed carbonate growth conditions on the Guangle carbonate platform probably resulted from increased inorganic nutrient input derived from the adjacent uplifted mainland,possibly enhanced by deteriorated climatic conditions promoting platform drowning.Therefore,tectonics and terrigenous input could be two main controlling factors on the development of the Guangle carbonate platforms and main evolution stages.

Formation and syn-rifting process of the Wan'an Basin, South China Sea

Based on seismic and drilling data, we calculated tectonic subsidence amounts and rates of the Wan'an Basin by backstripping. The genetic mechanism and syn-rifting process of the basin were analyzed in combination with the regional geological setting. The results reveal that the basin syn-rifted in the Eocene and early Miocene under the control of the dextral strike-slip Wan'an Fault Zone. The transtensional/ extentional stresses along this fault zone may be attributed to seafloor spreading of the South China Sea (SCS) in multiple episodes. Extensive basal faults and some small initial rifts in the early Paleogene can be related to southeastward extrusion and clockwise rotation of the Indochina Block. During the Oligocene, the nearly N-S directed spreading of the SCS derived the transtensional stresses in a roughly NW-SE orientation. The basin subsided rapidly in the middle and north to form two major subsidence centers. In the early Miocene, the SCS spread again in a nearly NW-SE direction, resulting in rapid subsidence in the southern basin continuous extending until the period ～16.3 Ma.

Scree conglomerate and its derivatives in the Upper Cretaceous Kallankurichchi Limestone,Ariyalur Group,Cauvery Basin,South India

The repetitive influx of coarse clastics of mixed composition,siliciclastics and carbonates,locally common in the lower part of the Upper Cretaceous marine Kallankurichchi Limestone specifies a resurgence of tectonic unrest in the Cauvery rift basin,India.The basin-margin scree and its derivatives elicit diverse modes of emplacement and differ in many ways from denoting it only as basal conglomerate.The study meticulously reveals the depositional history of these basin-margin coarse clastics.The scree conglomerate bodies are wedge-shaped in appearance and often have flat,eroded tops.At places,their surfaces,tops and flanks,are encrusted with Inoceramus although internally,they are mostly unfossiliferous.They are clast-supported and extremely poorly sorted,having interstitial spaces filled by sand-sized grains at the basal part.The clasts can be traced into the underlying Sillakuddi Sandstone and the granitic basement.The clasts derived from the sandstone are angular and measure up to 60 cm in length,while the basement-derived clasts dominate the smaller(maximum diameter measured 5 cm)and more rounded population.The elongated clasts are chaotically arranged,even oriented sub-vertically,reclining on other clasts.The lowermost scree conglomerate has a sharp base,and the pebbles sunk into the underlying sandstone,although no discernible impact laminae wrapping their bottom were ever observed.Evidently,the scree fans were initiated under the sea,which permitted the slow sinking of assorted rock fragments dropped from above.The sporadic occurrence of marine fossils further corroborates this contention.The scree conglomerates at different stratigraphic levels transitioned laterally into conglomerates of mass flow origin and then to massive calcarenite,together forming wedge-shaped bodies.The initial alignment of clasts parallel to bedding transforms to a chaotic alignment representing the transition from internally sheared flow to debris flow and associated shapes.Matrixsupported fabric grades into massive calcarenite,suggesting gravity-driven transformation.Further down the wedge,the massive calcarenite turns into cross-stratified facies,making it evident that laminar flow turned turbulent in the course of body transformation of the sediment-driving flows.It can be presumed that these flows were triggered by subsidence,which resulted from renewed gaps in formation and led to the collapse of scree cones.Facies variability suggests scree deposits giving way downslope to debris flow and related deposits.Eventually,all the scree products pass laterally into the carbonate formation basinwards.

Postrift Rapid Subsidence Characters in Qiongdongnan Basin,South China Sea

In this article,the backstripping technique was used in studying the subsidence charac-ters of the Qiongdongnan（琼东南） basin（QDNB） in order to understand its dynamic mechanism of formation and evolution.Meanwhile,the geothermal characteristics of this area were summarized,and the stretching factors（β） of the upper crust,the whole crust,and the whole lithosphere were calculated.The QDNB is characterized by high subsidence rate,high geothermal gradient,high geothermal heat flow,and the lithosphere stretching and thinning of this area are depth dependent.An asthenosphere zone must have been confined under the lithosphere of Southeast Asian continent because of the mutual subductions of the Eurasian plate,the Pacific plate,the Indian-Australian plate,and the Philippine Sea plate.These characters indicate that strong mantle convection occurred and the lower crust materials flowed away in the domain,which lead to the rapid flexural isostasy subsidence of the upper crust and the uplift of the asthenosphere.

Thermal-history reconstruction of the Baiyun Sag in the deep-water area of the Pearl River Mouth Basin, northern South China Sea

The Baiyun Sag, located in the deep-water area of the northern South China Sea, is the largest and deepest subbasin in the Pearl River Mouth Basin and one of the most important hydrocarbon-accumulation depression areas in China. Thermal history is widely thought to be of great importance in oil and gas potential assessment of a basin as it controls the timing of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion from the source rock. In order to unravel the paleo-heat flow of the Baiyun Sag, we first analyzed tectonic subsidence of 55 pseudo-wells constructed based on newly interpreted seismic profiles, along with three drilled wells. We then carried out thermal modeling using the multi-stage finite stretching method and calibrated the results using collected present-day vitrinite reflectance data and temperature data. Results indicate that the first and second heating of the Baiyun Sag after 49 Ma ceased at 33.9 Ma and 23 Ma. Reconstructed average basal paleo- heat flow values at the end of the rifting periods are -57.7- 86.2 mW/m2 and -66.7-97.3 mW/m2, respectively. Following the last heating period at 23 Ma, the study area has undergone a persistent thermal attenuation phase, and basal heat flow has cooled down to ～64.0-79.2 mW/m2 at present.

Stratigraphic Architecture and Computer Modelling of Carbonate Platform Margin,Late Ordovician Lianglitage Formation,Central Tarim Basin

According to the different geometries and reflected characteristics in the seismic sections, the carbonate platform margin of the northern slope can be summarized as three basic depositional architectures in the Late Ordovician Lianglitage （良里塔格） Formation of the Tazhong （塔中） uplift. The type one mainly located in the west of the carbonate platform margin, and it showed obvious imbricate progradation from the interior to the margin of the platform. The type two was in the middle of the carbonate platform margin, which showed retrogradational stacking pattern in the same transgres- sive systems tract period, and the slope strata of the platform margin showed progradational sequence in the highstand systems tract period. The type three located in the east of the carbonate platform margin, and it showed the parallel aggradational architecture. The crossing well section along the northern slope of the Tazhong carbonate platform showed that the depositional thickness became thinner from the east to the west. The thickest belt located in the east of the platform margin, and became thinner rapidly towards the basin and the platform interior. These indicated that the paleogeomorphology ofthe Tazhong uplift was probably high in the west and low in the east during the period of the Late Ordovician Lianglitage Formation. According to the interpretation of seismic profiles and the computer modelling result, the depositional architectures of sequence O31-2 showed aggradation, retrogradation and progradation from the east to the west of the carbonate platform margin during the transgression period. This meant that the accommodation became smaller gradually from the east to the west along the northern carbonate platform margin of the Tazhong uplift.The difference of the accommodation was probably caused by the difference of tectonic subsidence. Also, computer-aided modelling can be used to deeply understand the importance of various control parameters on the carbonate platform depositional architectures and processes.

Cenozoic Propagated Rifting in the Dangerous Grounds in Response to the Episodic Seafloor Spreading of the South China Sea

The southern continental margin of the South China Sea has documented multiphase continental rifting corresponding to the propagation of seafloor spreading.Here we investigate three multi-channel seismic reflection profiles across different segments of the Dangerous Grounds with a NE-SW direction.Stratigraphic correlation reveals that the Cenozoic tectono-stratigraphic framework in the Dangerous Grounds is featured with diachronous rifting,which records the successive spreading of East Subbasin and Southwest Subbasin,South China Sea.By reconstructing the tectono-sedimentary evolution history in different segments,we combine the quantification of the brittle extension,tectonic subsidence,as well as the crustal thinning.Results provide evidence that the extensional stress migrated from northeast to southwest with the progressive propagation of the seafloor spreading in the oceanic basin.Besides,the impact of the tectonic propagation persists even after the cessation of seafloor spreading,evidenced by a longer stretching duration in the West-Dangerous Grounds than that in the eastern area.Moreover,a temporary syn-rift subsidence delay synchronously to the spreading of the adjacent oceanic basin is observed along the southern margin.This observation proves the secondary mantle convection during the seafloor spreading in the southern continental margin,which is related to the propagating rift.