Studies on the Synthesis of Tetrapyrrole Nitrogen Mustards and Their Directed Dual Anti-tumor Activities

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Tetrapyrrole biosynthesis pathway regulates plastid-to-nucleus signaling by controlling plastid gene expression in plants

Plastid-to-nucleus retrograde signaling coordinates nuclear gene expression with chloroplast developmental status and is essential for the photoautotrophic lifestyle of plants.Previous studies have established that tetrapyrrole biosynthesis(TPB)and plastid gene expression(PGE)play essential roles in plastid retrograde signaling during early chloroplast biogenesis;however,their functional relationship remains unknown.In this study,we generated a series of rice TPB-related gun(genome uncoupled)mutants and systematically analyzed their effects on nuclear and plastid gene expression under normal conditions or when subjected to treatments with norflurazon(NF;a noncompetitive inhibitor of carotenoid biosynthesis)and/or lincomycin(Lin;a specific inhibitor of plastid translation).We show that under NF treatment,expression of plastid-encoded polymerase(PEP)-transcribed genes is significantly reduced in the wild type but is derepressed in the TPB-related gun mutants.We further demonstrate that the derepressed expression of PEPtranscribed genes may be caused by increased expression of the PEP core subunit and nuclear-encoded sigma factors and by elevated copy numbers of plastid genome per haploid genome.In addition,we show that expression of photosynthesis-associated nuclear genes(PhANGs)and PEP-transcribed genes is correlated in the rice TPB-related gun mutants,with or without NF or Lin treatment.A similar correlation between PhANGs and PGE is also observed in the Arabidopsis gun4 and gun5 mutants.Moreover,we show that increased expression of PEP-transcribed plastid genes is necessary for the gun phenotype in NF-treated TPB-related gun mutants.Further,we provide evidence that these TPB-related GUN genes act upstream of GUN1 in the regulation of retrograde signaling.Taken together,our results suggest that the TPB-related GUN genes control retrograde plastid signaling by regulating the PGE-dependent retrograde signaling pathway.

GUN4 Is Required for Posttranslational Control of Plant Tetrapyrrole Biosynthesis

In aerobic photosynthetic organisms, GUN4 binds the chlorophyll intermediates protoporphyrin and Mg protoporphyrin, stimulates Mg chelatase activity, and is implicated in plastidic retrograde signaling. GUN4 expression is most abundant in young and greening tissues and parallels the activity of 5-aminolevulinic acid （ALA） ALA and Mg porphyrin biosynthesis during photoperiodic growth. We explored function and mode of action of GUN4 using GUN4- deficient and overexpressing plants. GUN4 overexpression leads to a general activation of the enzymes of chlorophyll biosynthesis. During photoperiodic growth GUN4 deficiency prevents ALA synthesis and chlorophyll accumulation. All these metabolic changes do not correlate with altered gene expression or changes of protein abundance in tetrapyrrole biosynthesis. While ALA feeding fails to compensate GUN4 deficiency during light-dark growth, this approach results in chlorophyll accumulation under continuous dim light. A new model defines the involvement of GUN4 in posttranslational regulation of ALA and Mg porphyrin synthesis, to sustain chlorophyll synthesis, namely under varying environmental conditions.

Induced Deactivation of Genes Encoding Chlorophyll Biosynthesis Enzymes Disentangles Tetrapyrrole- Mediated Retrograde Signaling

In photosynthetic organisms, tetrapyrrole-mediated retrograde signals are proposed to contribute to a bal- anced nuclear gene expression （NGE） in response to metabolic activity in chloroplasts. We followed an experimental short- term approach that allowed the assessment of modified NGE during the first hours of specifically modified enzymatic steps of the Mg branch of tetrapyrrole biosynthesis, when pleiotropic effects of other signals can be avoided. In response to 24-h-induced silencing of CHLH, CHLM, and CHL27 encoding the CHLH subunit of Mg chelatase, the Mg protoporphyrin methyltransferase and Mg protoporphyrin monomethylester cyclase, respectively, deactivated gene expression rapidly led to reduced activity of the corresponding enzymes and altered Mg porphyrin levels. But NGE was not substantially altered. When these three genes were continuously inactivated for up to 4 d, changes of transcript levels of nuclear genes were determined. CHL27 silencing for more than 24h results in necrotic leaf lesions and modulated transcript levels of oxidative stress-responsive and photosynthesis-associated nuclear genes （PhANGs）. The prolonged deactivation of CHLH and CHLM results in slightly elevated transcript levels of PhANGs and tetrapyrrole-associated genes. These time-resolved studies indicate a complex scenario for the contribution of tetrapyrrole biosynthesis on NGE mediated by IO2-induced signaling and feedback-regulated ALA synthesis.

RLINl,encoding a putative coproporphyrinogen Ⅲ oxidase,is involved in lesion initiation in rice

Lesion mimic is necrotic lesions on plant leaf or stem in the absence of pathogenic infection, and its exact biological mechanism is varied. By a large-scale screening of our T-DNA mutant population, we identified a mutant rice lesion initiation 1 （rlin1）, which was controlled by a single nuclear recessive gene. Map-based cloning revealed that RLIN1 encoded a putative coproporphyrinogen Ⅲ oxidase in tetrapyrrole biosynthesis pathway. Sequencing results showed that a G to T substitution occurred in the second exon of RLIN1 and led to a missense mutation from Asp to Tyr. Ectopic expression of RLIN1 could rescue rlin1 lesion mimic phenotype. Histochemical analysis demonstrated that lesion formation in rlin1 was light-dependent accompanied by reactive oxygen species accumulated. These results suggest that tetrapyrrole participates in lesion formation in rice.

Camouflage Patterning in Maize Leaves Results from a Defect in Porphobilinogen Deaminase

Maize leaves are produced from polarized cell divisions that result in clonal cell lineages arrayed along the long axis of the leaf. We utilized this stereotypical division pattern to identify a collection of mutants that form chloroplast pigmentation sectors that violate the clonal cell lineages. Here, we describe the camouflage1 （cfl） mutant, which develops nonclonal, yellow-green sectors in its leaves. We cloned the cfl gene by transposon tagging and determined that it encodes porphobilinogen deaminase （PBGD）, an enzyme that functions early in chlorophyll and heme biosynthesis. While PBGD has been characterized biochemically, no viable mutations in this gene have been reported in plants. To investigate the in vivo function of PBGD, we characterized the cfl mutant. Histological analyses revealed that cfl yellow sectors display the novel phenotype of bundle sheath cell-specific death. Light-shift experiments determined that constant light suppressed cfl sector formation, a dark/light transition is required to induce yellow sectors, and that sectors form only during a limited time of leaf development. Biochemical experiments determined that of 1 mutant leaves have decreased PBGD activity and increased levels of the enzyme substrate in both green and yellow regions. Furthermore, the cfl yellow regions displayed a reduction in catalase activity. A threshold model is hypothesized to explain the cfl variegation and incorporates photosynthetic cell differentiation, reactive oxygen species scavenging, and PBGD function.

Advances in gas sensors of tetrapyrrolato-rare earth sandwich-type complexes——Commemorating the 100th anniversary of the birth of Academician Guangxian Xu

In recent years,sandwich-type rare earth tetrapyrrole derivatives,have attracted more and more attention as material for conductimetric sensors.They have not only great chemical stability and processability,but also flexible molecular structure,which is a key to adjustable semiconductor properties.In this mini review,we focus mainly on the development of tetrapyrrolato-rare earth sandwich-type complexes as the semiconducting active layer in the gas sensors published in the last ten years(2010-2020).The main part includes two sections.In the single component gas sensing of sandwich rare earth tetrapyrrole complexes,we describe the influence factors of the single-component semiconducting active layer on the sensing performance of tetrapyrrolato-rare earth sandwich-type complexes,including substituents,central metals and π-conjugate systems.In the multi-component gas sensors,the synergistic effect between tetrapyrrolato-rare earth sandwich-type complex and other materials on improving sensitivity and conductivity has been discussed briefly.