Geochemistry of Thermal Waters of Continental Margin of Far East of Russia

Studied waters belong to warm （T=30-50℃）, alkaline （pH=8.9-9.3）, low mineralized （TDS〈235 mg/l） Na-HCO3 or Na-SO4-HCO3 thermal waters with high content of SiO2 （up to 81 mg/1） and F （up to 3.9 mg/l）, occur on modern volcano-tectonic rejuvenated areas of Eastern Sikhote-Alin orogenic belt. Low 3He concentration as well as N2/O2 and N2/Ar ratios exclude influence of deep mantle fluid. New rare earth element data constrain our understanding of water-rock interaction occurring in the water source region. Meteoric origin of waters is proved by stable isotope values varying from -71%o to -136.1‰ and from -10.8‰ to -18.8%o for δ^2H and δ^18O respectively. REE patterns reflect high pH, resultfing from water-rock interaction and oxidative conditions. Calculations of deep aquifer temperature using Na-K and quartz geothermometers show 116.8-131.1℃ and 82.2-125.8℃ respectively. Presence of deep faults both with abnormal thermal gradient （-45- 50 K/km） define unique geochemical shape of thermal waters of Sikhote-Alin, area, where no present volcanic activity is registered.

Environmental Isotopes Study on Geothermal Water in Guanzhong Basin,Shaanxi Province

There exists abundant thermal water recourses in Guanzhong basin, Shaanxi province (northwestern China). With the deepening of exploitation for thermal aquifer nowadays, the information about the origin and movement of thermal water is limited by using traditional methods. This paper applies environmental isotope techniques to offer direct constraints on the recharge and movement of thermal water and improve the geological and hydrogeological data- base in Guanzhong Basin. The research on the environmental isotopes shows that the geothermal water of the area is mainly recharged by meteoric water. The temperature of meteoric water which replenishes geothermal water in the study area is -16 ℃. The estimated age of recharging the geothermal water is 13.3-28.2 ka based on the isotope analysis, belonging to the last glacial period in Late Quaternary. The source of replenishment of the geothermal water is thought to have been derived from glacial snow-melt water with an elevation higher than 1 500 m (ASL) in the north side of Qinling Mountain. The isotopic analysis denotes that the geothermal water in the southern Guanzhong basin is the mixture of net thermal water and normal temperature groundwater. Based on calculating the percentage of the mixture, nearly half of cold groundwater had participated the circulating of the geothermal water. However, in the center part of the basin, some artificial factors such as mismanage of pumping are probably the reason for the mixturing. The temperature range of the geothermal reservoirs in the basin is estimated at about 80-121 ℃ based on calculation of both SiO2 geothermometer and thermal water saturation index, which are basically in accordance with the measured temperature of thermal water. Based on the replenishment time and mixture extent with cold water, the thermal water in the studied area can be classified into three parts: mixed thermal water replenished by modern meteoric water; mixed thermal water replenished by both modern and ancient meteoric water, and deep circulating thermal water replenished by ancient meteoric water without mixture.

Oxygen and hydrogen isotope exchange of geopressured thermal water in the central Guanzhong basin

Geothermal water of Xi＇an and Xianyang in the central Guanzhong basin is typically geopressured thermal water in China. 5180 and 5D data of geopressured thermal water＇in Xi＇an and Xianyang, combined with data from the perimeter of the basin, are analyzed to study features of hydrogen and oxygen shifts. The results show that ^18O exchange of geothermal water at the perimeter of the basin and in the non-geopressured thermal water in the center of the basin is not evident, while in most of the geopressured thermal water in the central basin, in cities such as Xi＇an and Xianyang, significant oxygen exchange had taken place as well as hydrogen exchange, suggesting that isotope exchanges would slowly move the geothermal water system towards equilibrium. Thermal water reservoirs in the central basin have passed through significant water-rock reactions. Moreover, the geothermal reservoir of Xianyang city is relatively much more enclosed than that of Xi＇an city. It has been observed that the more enclosed the geological environment of geothermal water is, the more obvious the oxygen shifts are. With the increasing of the depth, residence time, total amounts of dissolute solids and temperatures of geothermal waters, the oxygen exchange accelerates.

A hydrochemical study of the Hammam Righa geothermal waters in north-central Algeria

This study focuses on the hydrochemical characteristics of 47 water samples collected from thermal and cold springs that emerge from the Hammam Righa geothermal field, located in north-central Algeria. The aquifer that feeds these springs is mainly situated in the deeply fractured Jurassic limestone and dolomite of the Zaccar Mount. Measured discharge temperatures of the cold waters range from 16.0 to 26.5 ℃ and the hot waters from 32.1 to 68.2 ℃. All waters exhibited a near-neutral pH of 6.0-7.6. The thermal waters had a high total dis- solved solids （TDS） content of up to 2527 mg/l, while the TDS for cold waters was 659.0-852.0 mg/l. Chemical analyses suggest that two main types of water exist： hot waters in the upflow area of the Ca-Na-SO4 type （Ham- mam Righa） and cold waters in the recharge zone of the Ca-Na-HCO3 type （Zaccar Mount）. Reservoir tempera- tures were estimated using silica geothermometers and fluid/mineral equilibria at 78, 92, and 95℃ for HR4, HR2, and HRI, respectively. Stable isotopic analyses of the δ18O and δD composition of the waters suggest that the thermal waters of Hammam Righa are of meteoric origin. We conclude that meteoric recharge infiltrates through the fractured dolomitic limestones of the Zaccar Mount and is conductively heated at a depth of 2.1-2.2 km. The hotwaters then interact at depth with Triassic evaporites located in the hydrothermal conduit （fault）, giving rise to the Ca-Na-SO4 water type. As they ascend to the surface, the thermal waters mix with shallower Mg-rich ground- water, resulting in waters that plot in the immature water field in the Na-K-Mg diagram. The mixing trend between cold groundwaters from the recharge zone area （Zaccar Mount） and hot waters in the upflow area （Hammam Righa） is apparent via a chloride-enthalpy diagram that shows a mixing ratio of 22.6 〈 R 〈 29.2 %. We summa- rize these results with a geothermal conceptual model of the Hammam Righa geothermal field.

Modulation of Sodium-Dependent Transporters Expression in Normal Human Keratinocytes by a Sodium Rich Isotonic Thermal Water

Background/Aim: In order to show that water can participate to the skin defense in front of different stress, we investigated the effect of an isotonic thermal water notably rich in Sodium (i.e. the Uriage thermal water) on 1) The taurine transporter (TauT) expression in human normal keratinocytes irradiated or not by UVB;and 2) the Sodium-dependent vitamin C transporter 1 (SVCT1) expression in human normal keratinocytes issued from two “young” and two “aged” subjects, irradiated or not by UVB. Methods and Results: Using sensible and specific TAUT and SVCT1 ELISA assays developed in house, we provide 1) the unambiguous demonstration that the Uriage thermal water is able to help the epidermis to maintain its taurine content under UVB irradiation;2) the first example of an altered SVCT1 expression in “aged” keratinocytes and of a significant positive effect of the Uriage thermal water on this altered SVCT1 production;and 3) arguments showing that Uriage thermal water is also able to participate to the regulation of the SVCT1 production in UVB-irradiated keratinocytes. Conclusion: Taking together, these results suggest that the Uriage thermal water could act to efficiently protect the skin from dehydration through its effect on TauT and SVCT1 expression, and furthermore, to allow a more efficient taurine and ascorbic acid supplying to the epidermis in order to protect him from other aggressions such as oxidant stress for example.

Thermal Water from Uriage-les-Bains Exerts DNA Protection, Induction of Catalase Activity and Claudin-6 Expression on UV Irradiated Human Skin in Addition to Its Own Antioxidant Properties

Aim: In order to decipher the mechanisms underlying the known protective effects of the thermal water from Uriage-les-Bains (TWFULB) on the skin barrier function, we studied its antioxidant properties as well as its effect on the expression of the tight-junctional protein claudin-6, a candidate tumor suppressor factor. Study Design/Methods: In a first step, TBARS and SOD activity assays were performed in an in vitro model of human dermal fibroblasts treated by hypoxanthine/xanthine oxidase (HO/XO) mixture, in order to evaluate the own antioxidant effect of the thermal water. In a second step, human keratinocytes irradiated or not by UVB were used to evaluate the protective role of TWFULB on nuclear DNA damage using a comet assay. In a third step, an ex vivo model of human skin explants irradiated or not by UVA and UVB was used to evaluate the effect of TWFULB on the intracellular catalase activity and on the cutaneous claudin-6 expression. Results: TWFULB showed significant protective effects against oxidative stress induced by HO/XO: the cell viability was improved and the lipid peroxidation was reduced. The tested thermal water also showed significant SOD-like activity and protective effect on the UVB-stressed DNA. Considering the ex vivo models of skin explants, TWFULB was able to counterbalance the “negative” effect of UVB on the intracellular catalase activity and on the cutaneous claudin-6 expression.Conclusion: This multiparametric approach shows the antioxidant activity of TWFULB and emphasizes its role in the DNA protection of the cutaneous tissue in front of the UV irradiations, and finally suggests that some effects could involve the candidate suppressor functions of claudin-6.

Jonzac Thermal Spring Water Reinforces Skin Barrier Function of Human Skin and Presents a Soothing and Regenerating Effect

The skin is a formidable physical and biological barrier which communicates continuously with the outside of the body. And the stratum corneum, the outermost layer of human epidermis, plays a central role in the interaction between the cutaneous tissue and the external environment. The horny layer, and more generally the whole skin layers, avoid the penetration of harmful exogenous agents, produce molecules named anti-microbial peptides which impact the composition of the cutaneous microbiota, regulate the internal corporal temperature, avoid the water loss from the inside of the body and constitute an incredible efficient anti-oxidant network. Nevertheless, nowadays, the skin is more and more solicited by the different elements of the cutaneous exposome, including atmospheric pollution and solar radiations, which can cause a dramatic acceleration of the skin ageing process. As a consequence, due to the multifunctional protective role of the skin, during the recent decade the cosmetic industry invested massively in the development of new raw materials and end-products (dermo-cosmetics) able to preserve an optimal state of the skin regarding the external environment. Based on their physical-chemical properties thermal spring waters, which are extremely rich in inorganics ions, are interesting and powerful candidates to be part, as integral component, of new efficient dermo-cosmetic formulations dedicated to protect the skin from the external stimuli. The aim of the present work was to investigate and characterize the activity of Jonzac thermal spring water on the skin. Using different models, we proved for the first time that Jonzac thermal spring water reinforces the barrier function of the skin by modulating the expression of key markers including filaggrin and human beta defensin 2 on ex vivo human skin. The ex vivo and in vivo hydration activity, by Raman spectroscopy and corneometry respectively, has been also demonstrated. We have also shown that Jonzac thermal spring water ameliorates significantly the cutaneous microrelief in vivo. To conclude, we characterize the soothing effect of Jonzac thermal spring water by the analysis of histamine release in Substance P treated skin explants and by measuring the redness of the skin following UV exposure of the skin in vivo. We observed that both parameters decreased following a preventive treatment of the skin with Jonzac thermal spring water. Taken together our results indicate that Jonzac thermal spring water is a promising and powerful dermo-cosmetic which can be used to preserve an optimal state of the cutaneous tissue.

Origin and Evolution Characteristics of Geothermal Water in the Niutuozhen Geothermal Field,North China Plain

Statistical study of analyses of water from 43 samples from geothermal wells, three groundwater wells, and one sample of local rainwater along with rainwater data from the Global Net- work of Isotopes in Precipitation has been used to identify the origin and evolution of geothermal water in the Niutuozhen （~f=~jg） geothermal field and estimate the renewability rate of its geothermal re- source. The results show that the geothermal waters of the Jixianian Wumishanian dolomite reservoir and the Ordovician limestone reservoir are of CI-Na type, the geothermal water of the Pliocene Minghuazben （H~/~） Formation sandstone reservoir are CI-Na type and HCO3-Na type and the groundwater of the Quaternary aquifer is HCO3-Na and HCO3-Na.Mg.Ca type. A linear relationship between silica concentration and temperature indicates that higher temperature probably enhances concentration of silica in Jixianian geothermal water. 81SO shift in Wumishanian geothermal water av- eraged 1.57%o, and was less than 1%o in the other geothermal waters. The minimum and maxi-mum 14C ages of Wumishanian geothermal wa- ter are 17 000 and 33 000 years from north to the south of the Niutuozhen geothermal field. Geo- thermal water and Quaternary groundwater belong to different groundwater systems with no hydraulic connections. Although the geothermal field receives some recharge from the Yanshan and Taihang mountains outside the northern and western boundaries of the geothermal field re- spectively, the renewability rate of geothermal water is on the scale of 10 000 years.

INFLUENCE OF SILOXANE CO-SEGMENT LENGTH AND CONTENT OF WATERBORNE POLYSILOXANE-URETHANE COPOLYMERS ON THEIR WATER RESISTANCE,THERMAL STABILITY AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

A series of stable waterborne polysiloxaneurethane （WPSUR） dispersions were prepared using amino-terminated polydimethylsiloxane （NS）, dimethylolpropionic acid （DMPA）, castor oil, polypropylene glycol and toluene diisocyanate. Meanwhile, NS with different molecular weights was synthesized and used as the soft co-segment. Effects of types and contents of soft co-segments as well as chain extenders on the thermal degradation and stability for WPSUR films were examined. Results reveal that WPSUR films exhibit excellent water resistance and mechanical properties as compared with pure polyurethane （PU） films, and the NS soft co-segment possesses a remarkable effect on the second stage （stage Ⅱ）, while the content of the hard segment is propitious to the initial stage （stage Ⅰ）. Moreover, the highest temperature of stage Ⅱ （T2m） for WPSUR films using NS as soft co-segment is 413℃, approximately being 30℃ higher than that of those typical PUs using HDA and APDMS as the chain extenders, respectively.

The source of replenishment of geothermal water around Xi'an

The meteoric origin of the geothermal water in Xi’an is evidenced by its H and O isotope composition. Based on the temperature dependence of isotopic composition, the temperature of meteoric water that replenishes the geothermal aquifers in Xi’an and its neighboring regions is calculated to be -13.28℃. The age of the geothermal water based on 14C dating method is 10-30 kaBP, belonging to a secondary glacial period in Late Quaternary. The source of replenishment is considered to have mainly derived from glacial snow melt water from elevations higher than 2,000m (ASL) in Qinling Mountains.

The effects of water flow and temperature on thermal regime around a culvert built on permafrost

Temperature and water flow through a culvert beneath the Alaska Highway near Beaver Creek,Yukon,were measured at hourly intervals between June and October 2013.These data were used to simulate the effect of the culvert on the thermal regime of the road embankment and subjacent permafrost.A 2-D thermal model of the embankment and permafrost was developed with TEMP/W and calibrated using field observations.Empirical relations were obtained between water temperatures at the entrance to the culvert,flow into the culvert,and water temperatures inside the structure.Water temperatures at the entrance and inside the culvert had a linear relation,while water temperatures inside the culvert and water flow were associated by a logarithmic relation.A multiple linear regression was used to summarize these relations.From this relationship,changes in the flow rate and water temperatures at the entrance of the culvert were simulated to obtain predicted water temperatures in the culvert.The temperatures in the culvert were used in the thermal model to determine their effects on the ground thermal regime near the culvert.Variation of ±10% in water flow rate had no impact on the thermal regime underneath the culvert.Variation of water temperature at the entrance of the culvert had a noticeable influence on the thermal regime.A final simulation was conducted without insulation beneath the culvert.The thaw depth was 30 cm with insulation,and 120 cm without insulation,illustrating the importance of insulation to the ground thermal regime.

The Hot Water Oil Expulsion Technique for Geothermal Resources

With the rapid development of Chinese petroleum industry, Oil production way of burning crude oil to produce steam need change. Heavy oil reservoir with thin layer or edgewater is unsuitable thermal recovery, electric heating leads to considerable electrical consumption, low injection water temperature decreases reservoir temperature and increased crude oil viscosity. The prolonged temperature difference break up reservoir pore throat cement and framework minerals. To improve high-capacity channel communication, we proposed geothermal oil recovery. Broad-sense abundant geothermal resources and existing injection water technique equipment are used, deep-seated high temperature liquid (oil-gas-water mixture) draws geothermal warming flowing layer to transit heat upward, decreases viscidity and increases fluidity. Reservoir temperature different offer geothermal fountain. Practicability process is analyzed. statistics and reservoir temperature variation analysis of Gudong Oilfield, Shengli Oilfield Company, SINOPEC, we have designed flow-chart concept for geothermal oil recovery, suggested drilling multi-branch well in heavy oil reservoir as injection-well, at the same position of geothermal fountain well, using free-pressure pump to inject hot liquid directly to aimed oil layer, made oil recovery in surrounding wells. It is proposed that geothermal oil recovery forerunner test should be first conducted in favorable blocks.

DETERMINATION OF THE THERMAL WATER CIRCULATION DEPTH USING DATA FROM GEOTHERMAL INVESTIGATION——CASE HISTORY IN ZHANGZHOU GEOTHERMAL FIELD, SE CHINA

The thermal water circulation depth is an important parameter in the study of a geothermal field, which plays a key role in understanding the genetic type of the thermal water, the formation mechanism of the geothermal field and in assessing the potential of the geothermal resources. Based on a large amount of data from our research work

Conceptual Hydrogeological Model and Groundwater Resource Estimation in a Complex Hydrothermal Area: The Case of the Viterbo Geothermal Area (Central Italy)

The conceptual hydrogeological model of the Viterbo thermal area in central Italy and the yield of the groundwater sys- tem have been examined. This area is of great geothermal interest. Through new investigations, three overlapping aquifers have been found. This study examines in detail the two shallower aquifers, characterized by different hydraulic and chemical characteristics. The first aquifer is related to the regional groundwater flow of the Cimino-Vico volcanic system and is generally characterized by cold, fresh waters used for irrigation and drinking water supply. The second aquifer, i.e. the thermal aquifer, supply thermal spas and public pools;it is present where the local hydrostratigraphic, structural and geothermal conditions permit a relatively active flow of higher salinity thermal waters (40?C - 62?C). These two aquifers interact vertically and laterally, giving rise to mixed waters circulating in the first aquifer. The first aquifer is recharged by direct infiltration and inflow from regional groundwater, as well as inflow from the second aquifer. The yield of the thermal aquifer is at least 170 L/s, discharging into thermal springs and wells, besides feeding the shallow aquifer vertically and laterally. Even if a future development of the second aquifer is potentially achievable on a global scale, the exploitation of the thermal waters is strictly dependent on the specific local hydrogeological equilibrium between the overlapping aquifers, different from place to place. The case study highlights that, in the volcanic hydrogeological environment, one of the most stringent constraints in determining the correct usage of a resource is the variable level of interaction of groundwater with different qualities.

Threats to the Thermal Mineralized Waters Used for Therapeutic Purposes in Jordan

Although Jordan is a country with very limited water resources, the country is rich in its thermal mineralized water possessing curative properties, historically used for the therapy of a variety of ailments. Due to the country’s increasing water demand resulting from population growth, urbanization, and industrialization, extractions from the groundwater sources feeding the thermal mineralized springs has started to affect negatively the discharged quantities from the springs. In addition, urbanization, mining activities, over-exploited groundwater resources in general and severe drop in the level of the Dead Sea are leading to declining discharge of springs in general, and thermal mineralized in special, deteriorating water quality and contamination by human activities. In this article, the current quantitative and qualitative situation of the thermal mineralized springs is given and the threats to their discharges and quantities are discussed. In addition, some water policy changes and measures are suggested to conserve these therapeutic waters for the use of generations to come and to alleviate their depletion and quality deterioration on the social and economic state of Jordan.

Water-Tank Experiment on the Thermal Circulation Induced by the Bottom Heating in an Asymmetric Valley

Water tank experiments were carried out to investigate the thermal convection due to the bottom heating in an asymmetrical valley under neutral and stably stratified approach flows with the Particle Image Velometry (PIV) visualization technique. In the neutral stratification approach flow, the ascending draft induced by bottom heating is mainly located in the center of the valley in calm ambient wind. However, with ambient wind flow, the thermal convection is shifted leeward, and the descending draft is located on the leeward side of the valley, while the ascending draft is located on the windward side. The descending draft is minorly turbulent and organized, while the ascending draft is highly turbulent. With the increase of the towing speed, the descending and ascending drafts induced by the mechanical elevation begin to play a more dominant role in the valley flow, while the role of the thermal convection in the valley airflow becomes limited. In the stable stratification approach flow, the thermal convection is limited by the stable stratification and no distinct circulation is formed in calm ambient wind. With ambient wind, agravity wave appears in the upper layer in the valley. With the increase of the ambient wind speed, a gravity wave plays an important role in the valley flow, and the location and intensity of the thermal convection are also modulated by the gravity internal waves. The thermal convection has difficulty penetrating the upper stable layer. Its exchange is limited between the air in the upper layer and that in the lower layer in the valley, and it is adverse to the diffusion of pollutants in the valley.