Detection of internal crack growth in polyethylene pipe using guided wave ultrasonic testing

Despite the success of guided wave ultrasonic inspection for internal defect detection in steel pipes,its application on polyethylene(PE)pipe remains relatively unexplored.The growth of internal cracks in PE pipe severely affects its pressure-holding capacity,hence the early detection of internal cracks is crucial for effective pipeline maintenance strategies.This study extends the scope of guided wave-based ultrasonic testing to detect the growth of internal cracks in a natural gas distribution PE pipe.Laboratory experiments and a finite element model were planned to study the wave-crack interaction at different stages of axially oriented internal crack growth with a piezoceramic transducer-based setup arranged in a pitch-catch configuration.Mode dispersion analysis supplemented with preliminary experiments was performed to isolate the optimal inspection frequency,leading to the selection of the T(0,1)mode at 50-kHz for the investigation.A transmission index based on the energy of the T(0,1)mode was developed to trace the extent of simulated crack growth.The findings revealed an inverse linear correlation between the transmission index and the crack depth for crack growth beyond 20%crack depth.

Improving Ultrasonic Testing by Using Machine Learning Framework Based on Model Interpretation Strategy

Ultrasonic testing(UT)is increasingly combined with machine learning(ML)techniques for intelligently identifying damage.Extracting signifcant features from UT data is essential for efcient defect characterization.Moreover,the hidden physics behind ML is unexplained,reducing the generalization capability and versatility of ML methods in UT.In this paper,a generally applicable ML framework based on the model interpretation strategy is proposed to improve the detection accuracy and computational efciency of UT.Firstly,multi-domain features are extracted from the UT signals with signal processing techniques to construct an initial feature space.Subsequently,a feature selection method based on model interpretable strategy(FS-MIS)is innovatively developed by integrating Shapley additive explanation(SHAP),flter method,embedded method and wrapper method.The most efective ML model and the optimal feature subset with better correlation to the target defects are determined self-adaptively.The proposed framework is validated by identifying and locating side-drilled holes(SDHs)with 0.5λcentral distance and different depths.An ultrasonic array probe is adopted to acquire FMC datasets from several aluminum alloy specimens containing two SDHs by experiments.The optimal feature subset selected by FS-MIS is set as the input of the chosen ML model to train and predict the times of arrival(ToAs)of the scattered waves emitted by adjacent SDHs.The experimental results demonstrate that the relative errors of the predicted ToAs are all below 3.67%with an average error of 0.25%,signifcantly improving the time resolution of UT signals.On this basis,the predicted ToAs are assigned to the corresponding original signals for decoupling overlapped pulse-echoes and reconstructing high-resolution FMC datasets.The imaging resolution is enhanced to 0.5λby implementing the total focusing method(TFM).The relative errors of hole depths and central distance are no more than 0.51%and 3.57%,respectively.Finally,the superior performance of the proposed FS-MIS is validated by comparing it with initial feature space and conventional dimensionality reduction techniques.

Laser ultrasonic testing for near-surface defects inspection of 316L stainless steel fabricated by laser powder bed fusion

The laser powder bed fusion(L-PBF)method of additive manufacturing(AM)is increasingly used in various industrial manufacturing fields due to its high material utilization and design freedom of parts.However,the parts produced by L-PBF usually contain such defects as crack and porosity because of the technological characteristics of L-PBF,which affect the quality of the product.Laser ultrasonic testing(LUT)is a potential technology for on-line testing of the L-PBF process.It is a non-contact and non-destructive approach based on signals from abundant waveforms with a wide frequency-band.In this study,a method of LUT for on-line inspection of L-PBF process was proposed,and a system of LUT was established approaching the actual environment of on-line detection to evaluate the method applicability for defects detection of L-PBF parts.The detection results of near-surface defects in L-PBF 316L stainless steel parts show that the crack-type defects with a sub-millimeter level within 0.5 mm depth can be identified,and accordingly,the positions and dimensions information can be acquired.The results were verified by X-ray computed tomography,which indicates that the present method exhibits great potential for on-line inspection of AM processes.

Ultrasonic testing for laser welded joint of stainless steel

Two dimensional scan for laser welded joint of stainless steel was implemented according to the reflection characteristics of ultrasonic. B-scan imaging technique was applied to characterize the fusion state in the joint and distinguish welding detects such as incomplete penetration. Calculation of weld width at the interface of the two plates and imaging of the weld cross section were accomplished. Experimental results show that rapid nondestructive testing can be achieved by this method with threshold value of 30% attenuation degree. The calculation error is less than 0. 25 mm.

Feasibility of differentiating defect signals of ultrasonic testing for laser weld based on independent component analysis theory

Separating noise from observed signals was studied.When the small defect in the T-shape laser welding joint was inspected by ultrasonic testing system adopting independent component analysis(ICA) theory to process the signals.The principle of automatic ultrasonic testing signals processing and negentropy law of ICA were introduced.The experimental data were processed using relative analysis tools and results showed that the ICA could separate defects signals from noise effectively in laboratory.

Model-based optimization of phased array ultrasonic testing

Simulation of phased array beams in dovetail and austenitic welds is conducted to optimize the setup of phased array ultrasonic testing（PAUT）.To simulate the beam in such material with complex geometry or with characteristic of anisotropy and inhomogeneity, firstly,linear phased multi-Gaussian beam（LPMGB） models are introduced and discussed. Then,in the case of dovetail,wedge is designed to maximize the stable amplitude of the beam along the steering path;in the case of austenitic weld,modified focal law are developed to solve the problem of beam screwing and defocusing due to the material properties.To verify the effectiveness of the modified focal law,beam fields are calculated using LPMGB model in austenitic welds.

NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF ULTRASONIC NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING FOR WELDS

A computer simulation technique for ultrasonic propagation is utilized for the simulation of ultrasonic nondestructive testing (NDT). In this paper, one goal of the simulation is to compute ultrasonic field radiated by arbitrary transducers into pieces under examination. The other simulates a testing experiment. The simulation approach is based on the model for the computation of the ultrasonic field in isotropic media radiated from actual NDT transducers. After the field is known, remaining to be modeled is the interaction between this field and the scatters (defect) and the echo structure. The model of beam-defect interaction is based on the Kirchhoff’s diffraction approximations theory applied to elastodynamics. We assumed that the incident wave fronts on the defect are plane in the case of a focused immersed transducer and material is isotropic and homogeneous. The simulating results demonstrate that the model in ultrasonic NDT of welds is practical in further research and useful in optimizing testi

Industrialization of a Large Advanced Ultrasonic Flexible Probe for Non-destructive Testing of Austenitic Steel Pieces with Irregular Surface

Because the UT （ultrasonic testing） flexible probe technology may be an appropriate answer to examine components with uneven surface, AREVA has developed an industrial application of the CEA＇s （French Atomic Energy and Alternative Energies） flexible phased arrays sensors. As a ＂first of a kind＂ project, the challenges faced were significant, including developing a phased array smart probe suitable for industrial use on rather simple but large scale geometries, permitting UT propagation within a constraining media structure and then targeting a qualification according to ENIQ （European Network for Inspection Qualification） methodology. A prototype flexible probe, designed for UT validation, and final flexible linear array probes permitting the UT behavior （as, e.g., detection and sizing from diffraction type echoes） to be maintained on wavy coupling surfaces, have been manufactured. These probes include a profilemeter with optical sensors control and a specifically designed coupling circuit （avoiding probe housing tightness issues）. Qualification has been performed using open test blocks, （where known ＂defects＂ exist, for procedure qualification）, and blind test blocks, （where ＂defects＂ are unknown, for qualification of testing personnel）. One open test bloc was customized to represent a ＂real＂ surface condition, with gaps up to 2.5 mm under the regular rigid probes. AREVAI/BGSI in Germany was selected to lead the project, with assistance in development and manufacturing sub-contracted to ＂CEA/LIST＂ laboratory, and the companies ＂IMASONIC＂ and ＂M2M＂. This paper describes the development of these probes and explains a few features （ENIQ qualification objectives fulfilled, UT data acquired on actual perturbed surface） that made their industrial implementation successful.

Evaluation of freezing state of sandstone using ultrasonic time-frequency characteristics

Common problems in engineering projects that involve artificial ground freezing of soil or rock include inadequate thickness,strength and continuity of artificial frozen walls.It is difficult to evaluate the freezing state using only a few thermometer holes at fixed positions or with other existing approaches.Here we report a novel experimental design that investigates changes in ultrasonic properties(received waveform,wave velocity V_(p),wave amplitude,frequency spectrum,centroid frequency f_(c),kurtosis of the frequency spectrum KFS,and quality factor Q)measured during upward freezing,compared with those during uniform freezing,in order to determine the freezing state in 150 mm cubic blocks of Ardingly sandstone.Water content,porosity and density were estimated during upward freezing to ascertain water migration and changes of porosity and density at different stages.The period of receiving the wave increased substantially and coda waves changed from loose to compact during both upward and uniform freezing.The trend of increasing V_(p) can be divided into three stages during uniform freezing.During upward freezing,V_(p) increased more or less uniformly.The frequency spectrum could be used as a convenient and rapid method to identify different freezing states of sandstone(unfrozen,upward frozen,and uniformly frozen).The continuous changes in reflection coefficient r_(φ),refraction coefficient t_(φ) and acoustic impedance field are the major reason for larger reflection and refraction during upward freezing compared with uniform freezing.Wave velocity V_(p),wave amplitude A_(h),centroid frequency f_(c) and quality factor Q were adopted as ultrasonic parameters to evaluate quantitatively the temperature T of uniformly frozen sandstone,and their application within a radar chart is recommended.Determination of V_(p) provides a convenient method to evaluate the freezing state and calculate the cryofront height and frozen section thickness of upward frozen sandstone,with accuracies of 73.37%-99.23%.

Nondestructive Testing and Characterization of Residual Stress Field Using an Ultrasonic Method

To address the difficulty in testing and calibrating the stress gradient in the depth direction of mechanical components, a new technology of nondestructive testing and characterization of the residual stress gradient field by ultrasonic method is proposed based on acoustoelasticity theory. By carrying out theoretical analysis, the sensitivity coefficients of different types of ultrasonic are obtained by taking the low carbon steel（12%C） as a research object. By fixing the interval distance between sending and receiving transducers, the mathematical expressions of the change of stress and the variation of time are established. To design one sending-one receiving and oblique incidence ultrasonic detection probes, according to Snell law, the critically refracted longitudinal wave（LCR wave） is excited at a certain depth of the fixed distance of the tested components. Then, the relationship between the depth of LCR wave detection and the center frequency of the probe in Q235 steel is obtained through experimental study. To detect the stress gradient in the depth direction, a stress gradient LCR wave detection model is established, through which the stress gradient formula is derived by the relationship between center frequency and detecting depth. A C-shaped stress specimen of Q235 steel is designed to conduct stress loading tests, and the stress is measured with the five group probes at different center frequencies. The accuracy of ultrasonic testing is verified by X-ray stress analyzer. The stress value of each specific depth is calculated using the stress gradient formula. Accordingly, the ultrasonic characterization of residual stress field is realized. Characterization results show that the stress gradient distribution is consistent with the simulation in ANSYS. The new technology can be widely applied in the detection of the residual stress gradient field caused by mechanical processing, such as welding and shot peening.

Ultrasonic Nondestructive Testing of Superplastic Solid-State Welding Joint for Different Steels

Based on quantitative microscopic examinations of welds and welding rate for different steels(40Cr and T10A) joint,which possess the ultra-fine microstructure after high frequency hardening(HFH) and salt-bath cyclic quenching(SCQ),the suitable defect grey scale threshold value was determined,and the welding rate of superplastic solid-state welding of different steels(40Cr and T10 A steel) was systematically inspected and analyzed by means of self-made ultrasonic imaging inspection system.The experimental results showed that the superplastic solid-state weld of different steels can be inspected more accurately,reliably and quickly by this system,and the results were in good accordance with that of metallographic observation.The welding rate of superplastic welding is in linear relation with tensile strength of joint.

Ultrasonic signal classification based on ambiguity plane feature

Ambiguity function （AF） is proposed to represent ultrasonic signal to resolve the preprocessing problem of different center frequencies and different arriving times among ultrasonic signals for feature extraction, as well as offer time-frequency features for signal classification. Moreover, Karhunen-Loeve （K-L） transform is considered to extract signal features from ambiguity plane, and then the features are presented to probabilistic neural network （PNN） for signal classification. Experimental results show that ambiguity function eliminates the difference of center frequency and arriving time existing in ultrasonic signals, and ambiguity plane features extracted by K-L transform describe the signal of different classes effectively in a reduced dimensional space. Classification result suggests that the ambiguity plane features obtain better performance than the features extracted by wavelet transform （WT）.

Measurement of Attenuation of Ultrasonic Propagating through the Thin Layer Media with Time Delay Spectrum

The ultrasonic attenuation coefficient is one of the most important acoustic parameters to character the performance of a thin layer media, but it can not be measured due to mutual superposition of multiple reflected waves at the same interface in ultrasonic testing. Ultrasonic pulse echo and lamb wave to evaluate the thin layer media can not obtain attenuation coefficient at present. In this paper, analytical method was used to study the acoustics characteristic of thin layer media with the ultrasonic echo testing. Meanwhile, the process of ultrasonic attenuation measurement was presented. Simulation and experimental investigation is focused on a thin layer of rubber. Attenuation coefficient was introduced and evaluation mathematics model was established by the two echoes cross-correlation with and without the thin layer media based on the time delay spectrum. It involved the parameters related to the acoustic properties of the thin layer media. Through calculating the sound velocity and acoustic impedance with the evaluation model, it can deduce the relation between the attenuation coefficient and the frequency. Through analyzing the simulation results, it indicated that the attenuation coefficients were invariable with the varying of the frequency. However, the attenuation coefficients increased with the frequency increasing by ultrasonic testing the thin layer of rubber. The reason was that the attenuation factor was not taken into account during the simulation. This method overcomes shortcomings that the traditional ultrasonic testing can not evaluate the thin layer media whose thickness is less than motivation wavelength. It is a new solution to study the attenuation characteristic and on-line nondestructive evaluation in the thin layer media.

Wavelet analysis of ultrasonic A-scan signal of solid-state welded joints

In the ultrasonic nondestructive evaluation of the quality of solid state welded joints, such as friction bonding and diffusion bonding, the main difficulty is the identification of micro defects which are most likely to emerge in the welding process. The ultrasonic echo on the screen of a commercial ultrasonic detector due to a micro defect is so weak that it is completely masked by noise, and impossible to be pointed out. In the present paper, wavelet analysis (WA) is utilized to process A scan ultrasonic signals from weak bonding defects in friction bonding joints and porosity in diffusion bonding joints. First, perception of WA for engineers is given, which demonstrates the physical mechanism of WA when applied to signal processing. From this point of view, WA can be understood easily and more thoroughly. Then the signals from welding joints are decomposed into a time scale plane by means of WA. We notice that noise and the signal echo attributed to the micro defect occupy different scales, which make it possible to enhance the signal to noise ratio of the signals by proper selection and threshold processing of the time scale components of the signals, followed by reconstruction of the processed components.

Modeling and Experimental Analysis of Roughness Effect on Ultrasonic Nondestructive Evaluation of Micro-crack

A high-precision evaluation of ultrasonic detection sensitivity for a micro-crack can be restricted by a corroded rough surface when the surface microtopography is of the same order of magnitude as the crack depth.In this study,a back-surface micro-crack is considered as a research target.A roughness-modified ultrasonic testing model for micro-cracks is established based on a multi-Gaussian beam model and the principle of phase-screen approximation.The echo signals of micro-cracks and noises corresponding to different rough front surfaces and rough back surfaces are obtained based on a reference reflector signal acquired from a two-dimensional simulation model.Further compari-son between the analytical and numerical models shows that the responses of micro-cracks under the effects of dif-ferent corroded rough surfaces can be accurately predicted.The numerical and analytical results show that the echo signal amplitude of the micro-crack decreases significantly with an increase in roughness,whereas the noise ampli-tude slightly increases.Moreover,the effect of the rough front surface on the echo signal of the micro-crack is greater than that of the rough back surface.When the root-mean-square(RMS)height of the surface microtopography is less than 15μm,the two rough surfaces have less influence on the echo signals detected by a focused transducer with a frequency of 5 MHz and diameter of 6 mm.A method for predicting and evaluating the detection accuracy of micro-cracks under different rough surfaces is proposed by combining the theoretical model and a finite element simulation.Then,a series of rough surface samples containing different micro-cracks are fabricated to experimentally validate the evaluation method.

Evaluation of TiAl and 40Cr diffusion bonding quality using ultrasonic reflection spectrum

Combined with ultrasonic pulse-echo technique, reflection spectrum analysis was introduced to evaluate TiAl and 40Cr diffusion bonding quality. Frequency dependence of reflection coefficient was used to distinguish perfect bonding from imperfect bonding. It is found that the reflection coefficient from perfect bonding interface does not vary with frequency. When the size of imperfections is much smaller than the wavelength of ultrasound, the reflection coeffwient depends on frequency. When the size of imperfections is the same order of or even larger than the wavelength of ultrasound, the reflection coeffwient does not exhibit frequency dependence. However the amplitude of imperfect interface is higher than the amplitude of perfect bonding interface. A combination of reflection spectrum analysis and ultrasonic pulse-echo technique provides more accurate information about the bonding quality of dissimilar materials.

Research on ultrasonic-based investigation of mechanical properties of ice

Arctic sea ice area and thickness have declined dramatically during the recent decades.Sea ice physical and mechanical properties become increasingly important.Traditional methods of studying ice mechanical parameters such as ice-coring cannot realize field test and long-term observation.A new principle of measuring mechanical properties of ice using ultrasonic was studied and an ultrasonic system was proposed to achieve automatic observation of ice mechanical parameters(Young’s modulus,shear modulus and bulk modulus).The ultrasonic system can measure the ultrasonic velocity through ice at different temperature,salinity and density of ice.When ambient temperature decreased from 0°C to-30°C,ultrasonic velocity and mechanical properties of ice increased,and vice versa.The shear modulus of the freshwater ice and sea ice varied from 2.098 GPa to 2.48 GPa and 2.927 GPa to 4.374 GPa,respectively.The bulk modulus of freshwater ice remained between 3.074 GPa and4.566 GPa and the sea ice bulk modulus varied from 1.211 GPa to 3.089 GPa.The freshwater ice Young’s modulus kept between 5.156 GPa and 6.264 GPa and sea ice Young’s modulus varied from 3.793 GPa to 7.492 GPa.The results of ultrasonic measurement are consistent with previous studies and there is a consistent trend of mechanical modulus of ice between the process of ice temperature rising and falling.Finally,this ultrasonic method and the ultrasonic system will help to achieve the long-term observation of ice mechanical properties of ice and improve accuracy of sea ice models.

Application of ambiguity function to ultrasonic signal recognition

The ambiguity function (AF) is proposed to represent the ultrasonic signal for its modulus’ independence of time shift and frequency shift, which avoids the effect of center frequency and arriving time of the ultrasonic signal on feature extraction. Moreover, the K-L transform is considered to extract features from the ambiguity plane, and the effect of signals to noises on validity of ambiguity features is analyzed. Furthermore, we discuss the performance of recognizing ultrasonic signals at different center frequencies and different arriving time based on ambiguity features. Experimental results show that the features extracted by the K-L transform (KLT) are immune to noises, and can recognize ultrasonic signals effectively in a lower dimensional space.

Ultrasonic C-scan Detection for Stainless Steel Spot Welding Based on Wavelet Package Analysis

An ultrasonic test of spot welding for stainless steel is conducted. Based on wavelet packet decomposition, the ultrasonic echo signal has been analyzed deeply in time - frequency domain, which can easily distinguish the nugget from the corona bond. The 2D C-scan images produced by ultrasonic C scan which contribute to quantitatively calculate the nugget diameter for the computer are further analyzed. The spot welding nugget diameter can be automatically obtained by image enhancement, edge detection and equivalent diameter algorithm procedure. The ultrasonic detection values in this paper show good agreement with the metallographic measured values. The mean value of normal distribution curve is 0.006 67, and the standard deviation is 0.087 11. Ultrasonic C-scan test based on wavelet packet signal analysis is of high accuracy and stability.

Simulation and experiments of ultrasonic propagation in nickel-based alloy weldments

In order to obtain good understanding of complicated beam propagation behaviors in nickel-based alloy weldments , ray tracing simulation is established to predict the ultrasonic beam path in a special welded structure of dissimilar steels. Also experimental examinations are carried out to measure the ultrasonic beam paths in the weldment. Then comparisons of the modeling predictions with experimental results are presented to reveal the complicated beam propagation behaviors.