Water diversion and agricultural production:Evidence from China

Water diversion can alleviate water shortages caused by the uneven distribution of water resources.China’s Southto-North Water Diversion Project(SNWD)is the largest water diversion project worldwide.Based on the prefecturelevel data of China’s Huang-Huai-Hai Plain from 2000 to 2020,this study employs an empirical strategy of Differencesin-Differences(DID)to analyze the impact of SNWD on agricultural production.The results show that SNWD has significantly increased agricultural production,measured by the agricultural value added.The estimated results of the benchmark model remain robust when the contemporaneous policy is addressed,an alternative outcome is used,subsamples are estimated,and alternative estimation techniques are employed.This study argues that the potential impact mechanism may be that SNWD significantly increases the acreage for cash crops but reduces that for grain crops.Heterogeneity analysis shows that in prefectures with high temperature or land potential,SNWD’s impact on agricultural value added is relatively low.In contrast,in areas with prolonged sunshine or high slopes,SNWD’s impact on agricultural value added is relatively large.Given the low added value of grain crops,the government should consider strengthening food security by subsidizing water supply to sustain grain production.

Effectiveness of groundwater extraction in Beijing since the ingauration of the first phase of the South-to-North Water Diversion Project, China

This study assess the effectiveness of groundwater pressure extraction in Beijing since the opening of the first phase of the South-to-North Water Diversion Project,using survey and evaluation methods.Firstly,an analysis of water consumption structure and the usage of diverted river water in Beijing in recent years was conducted.Secondly,the volume of groundwater pressure extraction in Beijing after the 33 project's inauguration was examined,revealing a decrease from 1.96 billion m^(3) in 2014 to 1.35 billion m^(3) in 2020.The proportion of water supply reduced from 52.3%in 2014 to 33.3%in 2020,leading to an optimized water supply structure.By the end of 2020,groundwater pressure extraction in Beijing is estimated at 446 million m3,with a substantial reduction in over-exploitation of groundwater.Groundwater resources have been effectively replenished,and the strategic reserve capacity has been enhanced.Furthermore,this study evaluates the change in groundwater levels as an indicator of the effectiveness of pressure extraction.The declining trend of groundwater levels in Beijing has been effectively mitigated,and there has been a consistent rebound in groundwater levels over the past five years.

A numerical study on water diversion ratio of the Changjiang(Yangtze)estuary in dry season

We studied the flood, ebb and tidal averaged along (net) water diversion ratio (WDR) during dry season in the Changjiang (Yangtze) estuary, China, along with the effects of northerly wind, river discharge, tide and their interactions on WDR using the improved version of three-dimensional numerical model ECOM. Using data for annual mean wind speed and river discharge during January, we determined that the flood, ebb, net WDR values in the North Branch of the estuary were 3.48%, 1.68%,-4.06% during spring tide, and 4.82%, 2.34%,-2.79% during neap tide, respectively. Negative net WDR values denote the transport of water from the North Branch into the South Branch. Using the same data, the corresponding ratios were 50.09%, 50.92%, 54.97%, and 52.33%, 50.15%, 43.86% in the North Channel and 38.56%, 44.78%, 103.96%, and 36.92%, 43.17%, 60.97% in the North Passage, respectively. When northerly wind speed increased, landward Ekman transport was enhanced in the North Branch, increasing the flood WDR, while the ebb WDR declined and the net WDR exhibited a significant decrease. Similarly, in the North Channel, the flood WDR is increased, the ebb WDR reduced, and the net WDR showed a marked decrease. In the North Passage, the flood WDR also increased while the ebb and net WDR declined. As the river discharge increased, the flood and ebb WDR of the North Branch increased slightly and the net WDR increased markedly. In the North Channel the flood and ebb WDR changed very slightly, while the net WDR declined during spring tides and increased during neap tides. The WDR in the North Passage changed slightly during flood and ebb tides while the net WDR showed a marked increase. The WDR values of different bifurcations and the responses to northerly wind, river discharge, and tide are discussed in comparison with variations in river topography, horizontal wind-induced circulation, and tidal-induced residual current.

Spatio-temporal distribution of phytoplankton in the Danjiangkou Reservoir, a water source area for the South-to-North Water Diversion Project (Middle Route), China

One of the water source areas of the South-to-North Water Diversion Project is the Danjiangkou Reservoir （DJKR）. To understand seasonal variation in phytoplankton composition, abundance and distribution in the DJKR area before water diversion, as well as to estimate potential risks of water quality after water diversion, we conducted an investigation on phytoplankton in the DJKR from August 2008 to May 2009. The investigation included 10 sampling sites, each with four depths of 0.5, 5, 10, and 20 m. In this study, 117 taxa belonging to 76 genera were identified, consisting of diatoms （39 taxa）, green algae （47 taxa）, blue-green algae （19 taxa）, and others （12 taxa）. Annual average phytoplankton abundance was 2.01×10^6 ind./L, and the highest value was 14.72 ×10^6 ind/L （at site 3 in August 2008）. Phytoplankton abundance in front of the Danjiangkou Dam （DJKD） was higher than that of the Danjiang Reservoir Basin. Phytoplankton distribution showed a vertical declining trend from 0.5 m to 20 m at most sites in August 2008 （especially at sites of 1, 2, 4 and 10）, but no distinct pattern in other sampling months. In December 2008 and March 2009, Stephanodiseus sp. was the most abundant species, amounting to 55.23% and 72.34%, respectively. We propose that high abundance ofStephanodiscus sp. may have contributed greatly to the frequent occurrence of Stephanodiscus sp. blooms in middle-low reaches of the Hanjiang River during the early spring of 2009. In comparison with previous studies conducted from 1992 to 2006, annual average phytoplankton density, green algae and blue-green algae species, as well as major nutrient concentrations increased, while phytoplankton diversity indices declined. This indicates a gradual decline in water quality. More research should be conducted and countermeasures taken to prevent further deterioration of water quality in the DJKR.

Impact of the eastern water diversion from the south to the north project on the saltwater intrusion in the Changjiang Estuary in China

The south to the north project (WDP) on the saltwater intrusion in the Changjiang Estuary is studied by the improved three-dimensionai (3D) numerical model.The net unit width flux in the Changjiang Estuary as well as the sectional salt flux is calculated in the North Branch (NB),the South Branch (SB),the North Channel (NC),the South Channel (SC),the North Passage (NP) and the South Passage (SP),respectively.The net seaward water flux in the SB is reduced,and the net water flux spilling over from the NB to the SB is enhanced after the eastern WDP.Under the mean river discharge condition in the dry season,the net salt flux spilling over from the NB to the SB is increased by 2.09 t/s and 0.52 t/s during the spring and neap tides,respectively,due to the eastern WDP.The saltwater intrusion in the Changjiang Estuary is enhanced by the eastern WDP.Compared with that during the spring tide,the net water diversion ratio during the neap tide in the NC is smaller,and thus the enhancement of the saltwater intrusion by the eastern WDP is smaller in the NC,and larger in the NP and the SP.The tidally averaged surface salinity at the water intakes of the Dongfengxisha Reservoir,the Chenhang Reservoir and the Qingcaosha Reservoir rises both during the spring and neap tides.

Optimization and coordination of South-to-North Water Diversion supply chain with strategic customer behavior

The South-to-North Water Diversion （SNWD） Project is a significant engineering project meant to solve water shortage problems in North China. Faced with market operations management of the water diversion system, this study defined the supply chain system for the SNWD Project, considering the actual project conditions, built a decentralized decision model and a centralized decision model with strategic customer behavior （SCB） using a floating pricing mechanism （FPM）, and constructed a coordination mechanism via a revenue-sharing contract. The results suggest the following： （1） owing to water shortage supplements and the excess water sale policy provided by the FPM, the optimal ordering quantity of water resources is less than that without the FPM, and the optimal profits of the whole supply chain, supplier, and external distributor are higher than they would be without the FPM; （2） wholesale pricing and supplementary wholesale pricing with SCB are higher than those without SCB, and the optimal profits of the whole supply chain, supplier, and external distributor are higher than they would be without SCB; and （3） considering SCB and introducing the FPM help increase the optimal profits of the whole supply chain, supplier, and external distributor, and improve the efficiency of water resources usage.

Assessment of impact of water diversion projects on ecological water uses in arid region

In arid regions, large-scale water diversion from rivers leads to significant changes in river flow regimes, which may have large impacts on ecological water uses of river-dependent ecosystems, such as river, lake, wetland, and riparian ecosystems. To assess the integrated impact of water diversion on ecological water uses, we proposed a hierarchy evaluation model composed of four layers representing the evaluation goal, sub-areas of the influenced region, evaluation criteria, and water diversion schemes, respectively. The evaluation criteria for different types of ecological water uses were proposed, and the analytical hierarchy process was used for the integrated assessment. For a river ecosystem, the percentage of mean annual flow was used to define the grade of environmental flow. For a lake ecosystem, water recharge to the lake to compensate the lake water losses was used to assess the ecological water use of a lake. The flooding level of the wetland and the groundwater level in the riparian plain were used to assess the wetland and riparian ecological water uses, respectively. The proposed model was applied to a basin in northern Xinjiang in northwest China, where both water diversion and inter-basin water transfer projects were planned to be carried out. Based on assessment results for the whole study area and two sub-areas, an appropriate scheme was recommended from four planning schemes. With the recommended scheme, ecological water uses of the influenced ecosystems can be maintained at an acceptable level. Meanwhile, economical water requirements can be met to a great extent.

Maintaining healthy rivers and lakes through water diversion from Yangtze River to Taihu Lake in Taihu Basin

On the basis of the Taihu water resources assessment, an analysis of the importance and rationality of the water diversion from the Yangtz,e River to Taihu Lake in solving the water problem and establishing a harmonious eco-environment in the Taihu Basin is performed. The water quantity and water quality conjunctive dispatching ＇decisi＂ofi-makifig support system, which ensures flood control, water supply and eco-aimed dispatching, is built by combining the water diversion with flood control dispatching and strengthening water resources monitoring and forecasting. With the practice and effect assessment, measures such as setting the -integrated basin management format, further developing water diversion and improving the hydraulic engineering projects system and water monitoring system are proposed in order to maintain healthy rivers and guarantee the development of the economy and society in the Taihu Basin.

3D Finite Element Analysis of TBM Water Diversion Tunnel Segment Coupled with Seepage Field

In most studies of tunnel boring machine(TBM)tunnelling, the groundwater pressure was not considered, or was simplified and exerted on the boundary of lining structure. Meanwhile, the leakage, which mainly occurs in the segment joints, was often ignored in the relevant studies of TBM tunnelling. Additionally, the geological models in these studies were simplified to different extents, and mostly were simplified as homogenous bodies. Considering the deficiencies above, a 3D refined model of the surrounding rock of a tunnel is firstly established using NURBS-TIN-BRe P hybrid data structure in this paper. Then the seepage field of the surrounding rock considering the leakage in the segment joints is simulated. Finally, the stability of TBM water diversion tunnel is studied coupled with the seepage simulation, to analyze the stress-strain conditions, the axial force and the bending moment of tunnel segment considering the leakage in the segment joints. The results illustrate that the maximum radial displacement, the minimum principal stress, the maximum principal stress and the axial force of segment lining considering the seepage effect are all larger than those disregarding the seepage effect.

Reliability model of organization management chain of South-to-North Water Diversion Project during construction period

In order to analyze the indispensability of the organization management chain of the South-to-North Water Diversion Project （SNWDP）, two basic forms （series connection state and mixed state of both series connection and parallel connection） of the organization management chain can be abstracted. The indispensability of each form has been studied and is described in this paper. Through analysis of the reliability of the two basic forms, reliability models of the organization management chain in the series connection state and the mixed state of both series connection and parallel connection have been set up.

Critical chain construction with multi-resource constraints based on portfolio technology in South-to-North Water Diversion Project

Recently, the critical chain study has become a hot issue in the project management research field. The construction of the critical chain with multi-resource constraints is a new research subject. According to the system analysis theory and project portfolio theory, this paper discusses the creation of project portfolios based on the similarity principle and gives the definition of priority in multi-resource allocation based on quantitative analysis. A model with multi-resource constraints, which can be applied to the critical chain construction of the A-bid section in the South-to-North Water Diversion Project, was proposed. Contrast analysis with the comprehensive treatment construction method and aggressive treatment construction method was carried out. This paper also makes suggestions for further research directions and subjects, which will be useful in improving the theories in relevant research fields.

Land Cover Changes and Drivers in the Water Source Area of the Middle Route of the South-to-North Water Diversion Project in China from 2000 to 2015

The Middle Route of the South-to-North Water Diversion Project(MR-SNWDP)in China,with construction beginning in 2003,diverts water from Danjiangkou Reservoir to North China for residential,agriculture and industrial use.The water source area of the MR-SNWDP is the region that is most sensitive to and most affected by the construction of this water diversion project.In this study,we used Landsat Thematic Mapper(TM)and HJ-1 A/B images from 2000 to 2015 by an object-based approach with a hierarchical classification method for mapping land cover in the water source area.The changes in land cover were illuminated by transfer matrixes,single dynamic degree,slope zones and fractional vegetation cover(FVC).The results indicated that the area of cropland decreased by 31%and was replaced mainly by shrub over the past 15 years,whereas forest and settlements showed continuous increases of 29.2% and 77.7%,respectively.The changes in cropland were obvious in all slope zones and decreased most remarkably(–43.8%)in the slope zone above 25°.Compared to the FVC of forest and shrub,significant improvement was exhibited in the FVC of grassland,with a growth rate of 16.6%.We concluded that local policies,including economic development,water conservation and immigration resulting from the construction of the MR-SNWDP,were the main drivers of land cover changes;notably,they stimulated the substantial and rapid expansion of settlements,doubled the wetlands and drove the transformation from cropland to settlements in immigration areas.

Wet-Dry Runoff Correlation in Western Route of South-to-North Water Diversion Project,China

The Western Route of the South-to-North Water Diversion Project is an important trans-basin diversion project to transfer water from the upstream Yangtze River and its tributaries （water-exporting area）, to the upstream of the Yellow River （water- importing area）. The long-term hydrologieal data from 14 stream gauging stations in the Western Route area and techniques including the pre-whitening approach, non-parametric test, Bayes, law, variance analysis extrapolation, and Wavelet Analysis are applied to identify the streamflow eharacteristics and trends, streamflow time series cross-correlations, wetness-dryness encountering probability, and periodicities that occurred over the last 50 years. The results show that the water-exporting area, water- importing area, and the streteh downstream of the water-exporting have synehronization in high-low flow relationship, whereas they display non- synchronization in long-term evolution. This corresponds to the complicated and variable climate of the plateau region. There is no obvious increasing or decreasing trend in runoff at any gauging station. The best hydrological eompensation probability for rivers where water is diverted is about 25% to lO%, and those rivers influenced significantly by diversion are the Jinsha and Yalong rivers. Proper planning and design of compensation reservoirs for the water-exporting area and stretch downstream of the water- exporting area can increase the hydrological compensation possibility from water-exporting area to the water-importing area, and reduce the impact on the stretch of river downstream of the water- exporting area.

Penalty model for delay of bidding section construction period in South-to-North Water Diversion Eastern Route Project from perspective of programs

According to the multi-project and program management theory, this paper analyzes the program generation principle and establishes a program based on progress goals. On the basis of the present situation of calculation of penalty for delay of the bidding section construction period with the critical path method, we studied the effects of contractor-induced delay of the bidding section construction period in detail, including the effects on the construction period of the bidding section itself, the earliest start times of the next bidding section and other subsequent bidding sections, and the construction period of the program, and then constructed a penalty model for delay of the bidding section construction period from the perspective of programs. Using the penalty model, we conducted a practical analysis of penalty for delay of the construction period of the Baoying station program in the South-to-North Water Diversion Project. The model can help determine the amount of penalty for delay of the construction period in bidding sections scientifically and reasonably,

Analysis on the Structure of Influencing Factors of Sustainable Supply Chain Implementation of Water Diversion Project

The systematic analysis of the hierarchical relationship among the factors affecting the sustainable supply chain implementation of water diversion projects has theoretical value and practical significance for the sustainable development of large-scale water diversion projects. Through the investigation of relevant literature, books, web pages, materials, and discussions with relevant experts and scholars, a total of 23 factors influencing the sustainable supply chain implementation of water diversion projects were identified. Then using ISM (Interpretative Structural Modeling Method) to analyze the causality of each factor, a multi-level hierarchical structure model was obtained. The results showed that: 1) The surface-level influencing factors of the sustainable supply chain implementation of the water diversion project mainly included 8 factors such as water-saving awareness and water-saving intensity in the diversion area, water quality, water pollution and other disasters, effective incentive mechanisms, etc., and surface-level influencing factors were directly related to the sustainable supply chain implementation of water diversion projects. 2) The indirect influencing factors of the sustainable supply chain of water diversion projects included 12 factors such as the water quality and quantity guarantee rate of the supply chain, the government’s enforcement of laws and regulations, water distribution, ecological compensation, and compensation mechanisms for residents in the water source area. Indirect influencing factor scan acts directly on the direct influencing factors, and intervening in the factors that can be controlled by humans is one of the important ways to improve the sustainable operation of water diversion projects. 3) The fundamental influencing factors for the sustainable supply chain implementation of water diversion projects included three factors: Resettlement policy, government financial support, and sound laws and regulations. Deep influencing factors had multi-channel influence and controllability, and intervening in them was the main means to improve the sustainable operation of water diversion projects.

IMPACTS OF THE SOUTH-TO-NORTH WATER DIVERSION PROJECTS (MIDDLE ROUTE)ON THE WATER ENVIRONMENT OF THE MIDDLE AND LOWER REACHES OF THE HANJIANG RIVER

In this paper, according to the rule of unbalanced sediment transport and the analysis of field data, different water diversion schemes were theoretically studied, including the erosion and sedimentation trend as well as their impacts on the environment of the middle and lower reaches of the Hanjiang River. The results showed that the 95×10 8m 3 water diversion scheme will cause less erosion and water level decrease than the 15×10 8m 3 water diversion scheme. Using a water diversion scheme of 95×10 8m 3, the decrease of water quantity can impact the river hydrodynamic regime substantially and the environments of the middle and lower reaches of the Hanjiang River will be greatly affected. It is therefore necessary to develop new water resources or build projects to meet the need of the environment and the needs for navigation.

The variation of DOM during long distance water transport by the China South to North Water Diversion Scheme and impact on drinking water treatment

In this study,samples were taken from three locations,upstream to downstream,along the central route project of the China South to North Water Diversion(SNWD)scheme in summer and winter.These were used to reveal the variations of dissolved organic matter(DOM)during the water transfer process,and the effects of these variations on drinking water treatment and disinfection by-products formation potential(DBPs-FP).The results showed that polysaccharides accumulate in summer and reduce in winter with flow distance,which has an important effect on the overall properties of DOM,as well as on the performance of coagulation,ultrafiltration,and the formation of DBPs.Humic substances,and their hydrophilic content,also increased in summer and decreased in winter with flow distance.In contrast,the concentration of small organic substances(MW≤1000 Da)increased in both summer and winter with flow distance,which affected both nanofiltration(NF)membrane fouling and DBPs-FP.The results provide a useful case study of spatial and temporal changes in raw water DOM during long distance water transfer and their impact on the treatment and quality of drinking water from the SNWD.

Deep-reinforcement-learning-based water diversion strategy

Water diversion is a common strategy to enhance water quality in eutrophic lakes by increasing available water resources and accelerating nutrient circulation.Its effectiveness depends on changes in the source water and lake conditions.However,the challenge of optimizing water diversion remains because it is difficult to simultaneously improve lake water quality and minimize the amount of diverted water.Here,we propose a new approach called dynamic water diversion optimization(DWDO),which combines a comprehensive water quality model with a deep reinforcement learning algorithm.We applied DWDO to a region of Lake Dianchi,the largest eutrophic freshwater lake in China and validated it.Our results demonstrate that DWDO significantly reduced total nitrogen and total phosphorus concentrations in the lake by 7%and 6%,respectively,compared to previous operations.Additionally,annual water diversion decreased by an impressive 75%.Through interpretable machine learning,we identified the impact of meteorological indicators and the water quality of both the source water and the lake on optimal water diversion.We found that a single input variable could either increase or decrease water diversion,depending on its specific value,while multiple factors collectively influenced real-time adjustment of water diversion.Moreover,using well-designed hyperparameters,DWDO proved robust under different uncertainties in model parameters.The training time of the model is theoretically shorter than traditional simulation-optimization algorithms,highlighting its potential to support more effective decisionmaking in water quality management.

Computing payment for ecosystem services in watersheds: An analysis of the Middle Route Project of South-to-North Water Diversion in China

Payment for ecosystem services （PES） has attracted considerable attention as an economic incentive for promoting natural resource management recently. As emphasis has been placed on using the incentive-based mechanism by the central government, rapid progress on PES research and practice has been achieved. However PES still faces many difficulties. A key issue is the lack of a fully-fledged theory and method to clearly define the design scope, accounting and feasibility of PES criteria. An improved watershed criteria model was developed in light of research on PES practices in China, investigations on the water source area for the Middle Route Project of South-to-North Water Diversion and ecosystem services outflows theory. The basic principle of assessment is the direct and opportunity cost for ecological conservation and environmental protection in the water source area deduct nationally-financed PES and internal effect. Then the scope and the criteria methods were determined, and internal effect was put forward to define benefits brought from water source area. Finally, Shiyan City, which is the main water source area for the Project of Water Diversion, was analyzed by this model and its payment was calculated. The results showed that： （1） during 2003–2050, the total direct cost and opportunity cost would reach up to 262.70 billion and 256.33 billion Chinese Yuan （CNY, 2000 constant prices）, i.e., 50.61% and 49.38% of total cost, respectively; （2） Shiyan City would gain 0.23, 0.06 and 0.03 CNY/m3 in 2014–2020, 2021–2030, and 2031–2050, respectively.

Transverse Eco-compensation Standards for Water Conservation:A Case Study of the Middle Route Project of South-to-North Water Diversion in China

In China,the distribution of water resources is incompatible with the development of productivity.The construction of South-to-North Water Diversion Project has achieved inter-basin water diversion,and the project can alleviate the uneven distribution of water resources phenomenon effectively.However,in recent years,the aggregate effects of water pollution and water resource shortages have been serious.Establishing transverse eco-compensation mechanisms becomes the key method to achieve sustainable use of water resources.Based on statistical and questionnaire data,this paper uses the Opportunity Costs Method and Willingness to Pay approach to establish a transverse eco-compensation standard calculation model for the Middle Route Project of the Southto-North Water Diversion.The results show that the upper and lower limits of the transverse eco-compensation standard for the Middle Route Project is $2.52 billion and $2.20 billion every year,respectively.However,the paying and receiving standards varied widely among different compensation payers and compensation receivers.Meanwhile,the significant factors influencing the paying willingness of the receiver area citizens were age,education level,average revenue per month,knowledge about the South-to-North Water Diversion Project and recognition of the importance of eco-environmental integrity.This study began with a theoretical analysis,then analysed related problems related to calculating transverse eco-compensation standards for the Middle Route Project of the South-to-North Water Diversion by an empirical study.This empirical study helps to establish effective transverse eco-compensation mechanisma and promotea the development of effective policies and legislation.