Assessment of tolerance of willows to saline soils through electrical impedance measurements

One-year-old potted clone plants of four willow species （Salix matsudana alba, S. babylonica, S. psam- rnophila and S. cheilophila） were cultivated and irrigated with saline solutions of different concentrations, while their elec- Lrical impedance spectroscopy （EIS） parameters and other physical parameters were monitored. The results indicate i） that under salt stress, height and basal diameter of all species are inhibited, and ii） that relative conductivity of cellular exudates increases while intracellular resistance （r~） and extracelluar resistance （r） drop. Both r, and r were positively correlated with height growth and basal diameter while they were significantly and negatively correlated with electric conductivity. The concentration of Na in the shoots of willows was negatively correlated with both r and re, whereas the concentration of K in the shoots was positively correlated with both r, and r. Hence, electrical impedance spectroscopy is a reliable tool for evaluating the capacity of willow species for tolerance to saline soils, with r as the most accurate pa- rameter.

A study of Two English Versions of Mr.Five Willows(a fragment) in Perspective of Reception Aesthetics

Mr. Five Willows is written by Tao Yuanming, an eminent proser and poet in the Eastern Jin Dynasty. Mr. Five Willows is one of the most famous essays to express Tao's pursuit of countryside life.There are two important English versions of Mr. Five Willows: Sun Dayu's version and Fang Zhong's version.This paper compares the two English versions from the point of Reception Aesthetics.

Food Conditioning Affects Expression of Insect Resistance in Diploid Willows(Salix spp.)

The high energy quota and versatility of use make willows (Salix spp.) attractive as bioenergy crops. Insect defoliation constitutes a threat to the profitability of willow growers. Hitherto, the breeding for resistance against the main insect pests has been hampered by the fact that all known resistant willow clones are polyploids, and existing molecular breeding tools work most effectively for diploids. Here, we firstly report diploid willows highly resistant to the main insect defoliator, the leaf beetle (Phratora vulgatissima), offering new opportunities for breeding resistance. Leaf beetles exposed to three resistant clones (two S. purpurea one S. eriocephala) laid three to 27 times fewer eggs than females on a susceptible S. viminalis clone. Secondly, we show that beetles laid significantly more eggs on resistant clones if they were fed the susceptible clone prior to the oviposition monitoring test compared to when they prefed on resistant clones. Nevertheless, the differences observed between resistant and susceptible clones were pronounced in all cases. The food conditioning effect means that small differences in resistance among clones may be undetected.

Thermal pretreatment of willow branches impacts yield and pore development of activated carbon in subsequent activation with ZnCl_(2) via modifying cellulose structure

Development of pore structures of activated carbon(AC)from activation of biomass with ZnCl_(2) relies on content and structure of cellulose/hemicellulose in the feedstock.Thermal pretreatment of biomass could induce dehydration and/or aromatization to change the structure of cellulose/hemicellulose.This might interfere with evolution of structures of AC,which was investigated herein via thermal pretreatment of willow branch(WB)from 200 to 360℃and the subsequent activation with ZnCl_(2) at 550℃.The results showed that thermal pretreatment at 360℃(WB-360)could lead to substantial pyrolysis to form biochar,with a yield of 31.9%,accompanying with nearly complete destruction of cellulose crystals and remarkably enhanced aromatic degree.However,cellulose residual in WB-360 could still be activated to form AC-360 with specific surface area of 1837.9 m~2·g^(-1),which was lower than that in AC from activation of untreated WB(AC-blank,2077.8 m~2·g^(-1)).Nonetheless,the AC-200 from activation of WB-200 had more developed pores(2113.9 m~2·g^(-1))and superior capability for adsorption of phenol,due to increased permeability of ZnCl_(2) to the largely intact cellulose structure in WB-200.The thermal pretreatment did increase diameters of micropores of AC but reduced the overall yield of AC(26.8%for AC-blank versus 18.0%for AC-360),resulting from accelerated cracking but reduced intensity of condensation.In-situ infrared characterization of the activation showed that ZnCl_(2) mainly catalyzed dehydration,dehydrogenation,condensation,and aromatization but not cracking,suppressing the formation of derivatives of cellulose and lignin in bio-oil.The thermal pretreatment formed phenolic-OH and C=O with higher chemical innerness,which changed the reaction network in activation,shifting morphology of fibrous structures in AC-blank to“melting surface”in AC-200 or AC-280.

A Cognitive Account of Metaphor Translation in Two Chinese Versions of The Wind in the Willows

Cognitive Metaphor Theory(CMT), originally formulated by Lakoff and Johnson in 1980, rejects the traditional view of metaphor being a rhetorical phenomenon, and redefines it as a cognitive instrument by which humans perceive, categorize, and conceptualize the world.The cognitive method of metaphor studies offers an innovative research perspective on metaphor translation, which is more a process of reproducing in the target language the mapping relations of the original metaphor than a simple transplantation of the concept on the linguistic level.Metaphor is one of the most common figures of speech in children's literature, but its translation is not as effortless as it might be, for translators have to take into account not only factors such as linguistic, cultural, and social differences, but also children's limited linguistic level and cognitive abilities, which altogether pose a formidable challenge to translators.This paper attempts to construct a cognitive metaphor translation model by exploring the cognitive process that translators go through when dealing with metaphor from the perspective of CMT.The cognitive metaphor translation process is specified as including three steps: metaphor comprehension, metaphor adjustment, and metaphor reconstruction.By analyzing metaphor examples extracted from two Chinese versions of The Wind in the Willows, a masterpiece of Kenneth Grahame in children's literature of Britain, this article summarizes metaphor translation techniques in children's literature.

Bioavailability of cyanide in the different environmental compartments

Vascular plants possess an enzyme system that detoxifies cyanide by converting it to the amino acid asparagine. Hybrid willows （Salix matsudana Koidz×Salix alba L.） were exposed to cyanide to determine whether willows can transport and metabolize this compound. Pre-rooted trees were grown in different environmental compartments, spiked or irrigated with potassium cyanide at 24.0±0.5℃. Cyanide in compartments, in air and in tissues of plants was analyzed spectrophotometrically. Results from this study indicated that large amounts of applied cyanide was removed from the systems during the presence of willows. Growing compartments of plants have a strong influence on the removal rates of cyanide. Little or no initial cyanide was detected in plant materials. Volatilization of cyanide was not occurring. Mass balance studies showed that applied cyanide was significantly metabolized during transport through willows cuttings. However, there was a clear difference between the metabolism rates of cyanide by willows exposed to different environmental compartments. The highest cyanide metabolism rate was found at the treatment with willows growing in hydroponic solution with a metabolism rate of 2.44 mgCN/（kg, d）, followed by willows growing in sand with a value of 1.02 mgCN/（kg·d）. The lowest metabolism rate had the willows growing in soils（0.43 mgCN/（kg·d）. In conclusion, transport and metabolism of cyanide in plants is likely and phytoremediation of cyanide is a feasible option for cleaning soils and water contaminated with cyanide.

怨柳文化溯源

在中西文化中柳树普遍可以用来表达忧伤、寄托哀思,这在中西风俗习惯、文学作品中都有显现,而西方多种语言对"垂柳"的词汇表达更是最直接的明证。中西怨柳文化似乎都有独立的传承历史,尚无明确证据可以证明怨柳文化发源于共同的源头。我国将柳树与忧伤情感联系起来的最早记载是《诗经》,时间至迟在公元前7世纪之前。西方最早的怨柳记载是《圣经》,大约在公元前五六百年,其次是Arrianus Historicus的Fragmenta Historica的记载,大约在公元1世纪。西方怨柳文化的重大发展发生在文艺复兴时期,很可能与中西交流的加强有关。

Brownfield Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals Using Brassica and Salix Supplemented with EDTA： Results of the First Growing Season

A phytoremediation field trial was established on a site contaminated with Cu, Pb and Zn in the City of Montreal （Canada） using Brassicajuncea, Salix miyabeana and Salix viminalis. The study compared metal content in plant tissues of each species at the end of the first growing season and assessed the effects of EDTA as a chelating agent to increase availability of metals for the plants. Brassicajuncea accumulated more metals （Cu, Pb and Zn） in aerial parts than in roots, whereas the willows accumulated Cu and Pb mainly in roots and Zn in aerial parts （mostly in leaves）. EDTA increased metal transfer in Brassica but had no effect on the two willow species. After one growing season, the total biomass yield of Brassica juncea was higher than that of the willows, and consequently, total metal accumulation by the plants was also greater. However, the high yield of willows over several years may make them more successful in brownfield phytoremediation.

The Impact of Willow Flowering Time on Species Composition and the Number of <i>Apoidea</i>Pollinators

Pollinators are important to wild and cultivated plants, and the same plants are important to pollinators as well. A very important source of pollen and nectar to pollinators are willows (Salix spp.). The aim of this study was to demonstrate which Apoidea species are attracted by a species-diverse willow plantation (Poznań University of Life Sciences Willow Collection, Poland), the proportion of the number of honeybees to other species from the Apoidea superfamily visiting willow plantations, and whether the flowering date of male and female willow individuals affect the species composition and number of pollinators. Observations of willow phenology were carried out in the second year of willow growth, from March 9 to December 7, 2012. The insects were observed between April 6 and May 11, 2012. The results of this study showed 30 Apoidea species. Among 1591 Apoidea individuals, only 17 honeybee individuals were noted. The results show that the willow pollen production optimum occurred when the minimum air temperatures stopped dropping below zero. This parameter and this period are also related to the intensification of the occurrence of the noted insects. It can also be concluded that the pollen production season precedes the flowering optimum of female flowers and that the optimum flowering of female flowers is correlated with a significant increase in air temperature.

Revegetation of Copper Mine Tailings with Ryegrass and Willow

To restore vegetation on metal mine tailings is very difficult because theyoften contain high concentrations of heavy metals, low nutrient content and low water retentioncapacity. This study involved 3 experiments that evaluated the effects of 4 treatment amendments:montmorillonite, rice straw, organic manure and chemical fertilizer on the growth of ryegrass(Lolium perenne L.) and willow (Salix viminalis L.) with Cu and Zn mine tailings from two miningareas. The results showed that ryegrass was the most tolerant of 4 crops to Cu toxicity. Also whenorganic manure, which contained high concentrations of inorganic salts, was added to the minetailings, it significantly hindered ryegrass growth (P = 0.05). Meanwhile, with ryegrass organicmanure significantly increased (P = 0.05) the extractable Cu concentration in both mine tailings.When montmorillonite was used as a mine tailings amendment with willow, the height and tress numberat the 1st cut were significantly greater (P = 0.05) than a control without montmorillonite. Howeverthere was no significant difference for height, tress number, dry weight or root dry weight at the2nd cut. So, amendment applications to reduce metal toxicity and increase nutrients retention inmine tailings were essential during revegetation of mine tailings.

Positive adaptation of Salix eriostachya to warming in the treeline ecotone,East Tibetan Plateau

Understanding of treeline ecotone ecophysiological adaptation to climate warming is still very limited. Furthermore, it is difficult to predict which plant species could dominate in the future. For this reason, a study was conducted in the treeline ecotone, East Tibetan Plateau to detect the adaptation of the dwarf willow(Salix eriostachya) to experimental warming. Compared to ambient conditions, the experimental warming advanced the bud break by 12 days, delayed the leaf abscission by20 days, and prolonged the growing period by 28 days.It also increased photosynthesis(47%), number of leaves(333%), leaf area(310%), and carbon sequestration of the dwarf willow. Experimental warming did not affect carbon use efficiency, but decreased water use efficiency significantly.Experimental warming enhanced the clonal ramets of Salix eriostachya(+ 3.7 shrubs m-2). The frequent air temperature fluctuations had minor effect on Salix eriostachya. Based on these findings, we highlighted that Salix eriostachya could dominate in the community treeline ecotone of east Tibetan Plateau in the future climate warming scenario.

Aboveground Biomass and Water Storage Allocation in Alpine Willow Shrubs in the Qilian Mountains in China

The aboveground biomass allocation and water relations in alpine shrubs can provide useful information on analyzing their ecological and hydrological functions in alpine regions. The objectives of this study were to compare the aboveground biomass allocation, water storage ratio and distribution between foliage/woody components,and to investigate factors affecting aboveground biomass allocation and water storage ratio in alpine willow shrubs in the Qilian Mountains, China. Three experimental sites were selected along distance gradients from the riverside in the Hulu watershed in the Qilian Mountains. The foliage, woody component biomass, and water allocation of Salix cupularis Rehd.and Salix oritrepha Schneid. shrubs were measured using the selective destructive method. The results indicated that the foliage component had higher relative water and biomass storage than the woody component in the upper part of the crown in individual shrubs. However, the woody component was the major biomass and water storage component in the whole shrub level for S. cupularis and S.oritrepha. Moreover, the foliage/woody component biomass ratio decreased from the top to the basal level of shrubs. The relative water storage allocation was significantly affected by species types, but was not affected by sites and interaction between species and sites. Meanwhile, relative water storage was affectedby sites as well as by interaction between sites and species type.

Harvest of Short-Rotation Woody Crops in Plantations with a Biobaler

The biobaler is an alternative to the modified self-propelled forage harvester to cut and collect short rotation woody crops (SRWC). It is less capital intensive and more versatile, being able to harvest woody crops on plantations, on abandoned farmland, on brush land or within forest understory. The biobaler was evaluated specifically on five different plantations over 19 experimental units (546 bales harvested with an average mass of 427 kg and 49% moisture content). Average bale density was 266 kg wet mass (WM)/m3 or 139 kg dry mass (DM)/m3. Average harvest capacity was 35 bales/h (7.7 t dry matter/h), and ranged from 23 to 48 bales/h. Harvest in plantations with a 149 kW tractor cost on average CAN $175/h, $5/bale and $22.84/t DM. Non recovered biomass (field loss) averaged 11% at random locations in the field and 8% at the point of bale ejection as a result of chip abrasion. While the biobaler remains a versatile harvester for SRWC, its preferred utilization will be in environments of diverse woody crops with final application as a rough mulch or for combustion in furnaces requiring minimal processing or size reduction.

An Analysis of Tree English Translations of “To the Tune of ‘Water Dragon Song^1’” by Su Shi

Su Shi is known for his poems of haofang style as well as wanyue style. The author takes a comparative reading of three English renderings of"Water Dragon Song"; both achievements and problems in each version are discussed regarding imagery, meaning, poet's sentiments and poetic atmosphere, for the purpose of working out a better rendering.

Recent Status of Willow Ptarmigan in China

The recent distribution status of Willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus) in China was studied by picture issuing, interview and on-the-spot investigation from 1992 to 1997. Results showed that Willow ptarmigan was a critically endangered species in China. It was distributed rarely in the northwestern region of the Daxing’an Mountains. Willow ptarmigan found in China belonged to L. I. serebrosky in sub-species position.

NON-DESTRUCTIVE SAMPLING FOR YIELD ESTIMATION

A general model was sought to estimate the shoot biomass of short rotation coppice crops in the UK. Differen agrd shoots of willow and poplar cloncs were sampled from different sites to produce 19 data sets. Modcls wcrc created for each clone, scparatcly for 1 -, 2-and 4-year old willow, and general models for 1 to 4 year willows. and 3 year old poplars. The models were compared with regard to accuracy and correlation coefficient. The diameter at breast height was chosen as the best independent variable to estimate the shoot weight. A general multiplicative model without intercept was created for all the willows and poplars sampled. The model was evaluated and was found to have average accuracy of 92% when tested with new data from 1 -and 3-year old willow clones. The model requires further validation.

Availability and Use of Willow Species in Representative Cold Desert Areas of Northwestern Himalaya,India

Willow species （Salix fragilis L. and S. alba L.） are important elements of cold desert agroforestry systems in the Lahaul valley, north- western Himalaya. Their ability to grow through shoot-cuttings plantations under extreme and xeric climatic conditions of cold deserts, makes them ecologically suited and socially accepted for forestry programmes. Willow species in cold deserts may combat desertification and can thrive well in these areas as compared to any other species. Salixfragilis L. and S. alba L. are under cultivation in the Lahaul valley. However, S. fragilis is widely cultivated under the agroforestry and plantation forestry systems. In the Lahaul valley, willow species are used as subsistence resources and for socio-religious purposes. The present study was carried out to examine the vegetation analysis, density, diversity and distribution of willow species, present status and potential willow plantation sites and uses. The results of present study revealed that a higher species density was recorded at middle altitude villages （Jahlma-3,ooo m asl and Hinsa-2,7oo m asl）, except, a higher density of S. fragilis was at Khoksar （3,200 m asl） in plantation forestry on south-facing slopes. In forests, S. fragilis was planted mainly along the water channels, resulted a low density. The shrubby willow species occurred naturally in the entire Lahaul valley up to an altitude of 3,850 m asl. 81% of households felt the scarcity of willow trees, whereas, 19% of households were satisfied with the willow trees they owned. The majority of willow species were planted in middle altitudes on privately owned irrigated lands. It was rated most potential prospective willow planting siteby the farmers. Small size of land-holdings was one of the main constraints for establishing a large number of willow plantations. Commercial aspects of willow species need to be investigated to encourage the farmers to plant more willows further.

Carbon sink potential and allocation in above-and below-ground biomass in willow coppice

This research estimates carbon sink and allocation in above-and below-ground biomass of a 12-year-old willow coppice plantation on fl uvisol soil near the Vistula River(southern Poland).The plantation showed high C sink potential and sequestration rates.C sequestration by aboveground biomass was estimated at 10.8 Mg C ha^−1 a^−1.Accumulation in coarse roots was estimated at 1.5 Mg C ha^−1 a^−1 and in fi ne roots at 1.2 Mg C ha^−1 a^−1.Total C sequestered(above-ground biomass,coarse roots and fi ne roots)was estimated at 13.5 Mg C ha^−1 a^−1.These results confi rm the potential of fast-growing plantations of willow to mitigate,over a short time span,the eff ects of high CO 2 concentrations.

Projected benefit-cost analysis of agri-silvicultural system:vegetable crops intercropping with Salix alba (Willow)

An experiment upon an agri-silvicultural system involving Willow （Salix alba） tree, Kale （Brassica oleracea var. acephala） and Knol khol （Brassica oleracea var. caularapa） was laid in randomized block designed at farmers＇ willow field at Shalimar near Sher-e- Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Srinagar India during 2005 and 2006. The main plot was divided into sub-spots with 8 m × 2 m in size each in which four two-year-old willow （Salix alba） trees were at a spacing of 2 m ×2 m in a sub-spot. The intercrops were maintained at recommended spacing and supplied with recommended doses of fertilizers. The benefit-cost ratio in willow plantation intercropped with vegetable crops of Kale and Knol Khol was analyzed and compared with the benefit-cost ratio of sole willow tree forestry. The results showed that every rupee invested in plantation of agri-silvicultural system generates benefit-cost ratio of 2.78 and 2.79 in case of Willow intercropping with Kale and Willow with Knol khol, respectively, while as for sole crop of willows benefit-cost ratio was calculated to be 2.66. These results provided circumstantial evidence in favour of adopting agroforestry involving willow instead of Sole tree forestry.

Changing the Moisture Content of the Spartina and Miscanthus and Willow Shoots during Storage in Natural Conditions

The aim of this study was to determine the characteristics of the distribution of energy plant moisture content along the height of their shoots and the dynamics of moisture during storage in natural conditions. The shoots of Spartina, Miscanthus and willow were used in the study. Entire shoots were cut into sections of 10 cm and for each set in monthly cycles for six months moisture content was evaluated. After a month＇s storage of freshly cut shoots the biggest decrease of content moisture in the shoots of Spartina and Miscanthus was recorded, by 31% and 22%, respectively, and the lowest in willow shoots （12%）. After sixth months of shoots storage the lowest moisture content （10%-12%） was reached in miscanthus. The most uneven moisture content along the height of shoots Spartina was characterized because on one third of the height from the bottom, the moisture content of shoots was 20%, and the top had moisture content in the range 5%-10%. Willow shoots were characterized by the smallest drop in moisture, and the final moisture content was about 23%, with the top part of moisture content of 10%-20%. The dynamics of moisture change during the six months of storage of grass shoots （Miscanthus and Spartina） in natural conditions under roofing was described by one power function regression, and willow by another one. Empirical models can be used to predict changes in moisture content of these plants in experiment conditions, since the coefficients of determination were 94.66% and 89.18%, respectively.