Evolutionary history shapes variation of wood density of tree species across the world

The effect of evolutionary history on wood density variation may play an important role in shaping variation in wood density,but this has largely not been tested.Using a comprehensive global dataset including 27,297 measurements of wood density from 2621 tree species worldwide,we test the hypothesis that the legacy of evolutionary history plays an important role in driving the variation of wood density among tree species.We assessed phylogenetic signal in different taxonomic(e.g.,angiosperms and gymnosperms)and ecological(e.g.,tropical,temperate,and boreal)groups of tree species,explored the biogeographical and phylogenetic patterns of wood density,and quantified the relative importance of current environmental factors(e.g.,climatic and soil variables)and evolutionary history(i.e.,phylogenetic relatedness among species and lineages)in driving global wood density variation.We found that wood density displayed a significant phylogenetic signal.Wood density differed among different biomes and climatic zones,with higher mean values of wood density in relatively drier regions(highest in subtropical desert).Our study revealed that at a global scale,for angiosperms and gymnosperms combined,phylogeny and species(representing the variance explained by taxonomy and not direct explained by long-term evolution process)explained 84.3%and 7.7%of total wood density variation,respectively,whereas current environment explained 2.7%of total wood density variation when phylogeny and species were taken into account.When angiosperms and gymnosperms were considered separately,the three proportions of explained variation are,respectively,84.2%,7.5%and 6.7%for angiosperms,and 45.7%,21.3%and 18.6%for gymnosperms.Our study shows that evolutionary history outpaced current environmental factors in shaping global variation in wood density.

Wood Density Determination with the Perspective to Decarbonisation of Tropical Forest Species from the Luki Biosphere Reserve in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Specimens of the forest species such as Pentaclethra macrophylla, Petersianthus macrocarpus, Pycnanthus angolensis and Terminalia superba have been sampled from LUKI Biosphere reserve in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in order to determine their wood density with the perspective to decarbonisation. These parameters have been found out experimentally utilizing a drying technique in an oven including techniques of immersion in an Erlenmeyer full of water. The corresponding results indicated that the four species wood density is respectively 0.85, 0.80, 0.77 and 0.51. These preliminary results will be useful in our ongoing project on carbon dioxide absorption capacity of Congo rainforest tree species.

Variability of European beech wood density as influenced by interactions between treering growth and aspect

Background： Wood density is considered to be the most important predictor of wood quality but despite its importance, diffuse-porous tree species have been the subject of only a limited number of studies. The importance of European beech forests for Central Europe calls for profound research to examine the potential impact of a warmer climate on the quality of beech timber. Methods： In this study we analysed the influence of tree-ring width and tree-ring age on the wood density of beech, and whether the wood density response to these two parameters is modified by aspect. A linear mixed-effects model for wood density was constructed for mean density data measured with high frequency densitometry on stem discs from 72 beech trees sampled from two different aspects （northeast -NE and southwest -SW） of a valley in southwestern Germany. Results： Part of the variability of mean annual wood density was explained by cambial age： an increase in cambial age resulted in an increase in mean wood density. Tree-ring width and aspect had only a small influence on wood density, Wood density on the SW aspect was lower than on the NE with a difference of approximately 0.006 g/cm3. The between-tree variability was very high. Conclusions： The significant interaction between cambial age and aspect reflects the importance of site conditions at older tree ages： with increasing cambial age the difference between aspects becomes stronger. Our results give a better understanding of the importance of site conditions on the wood quality of beech.

Genetic variation of wood tracheid traits and their relationships with growth and wood density in clones of Pinus tabuliformis

To improve wood quality for pulpwood industries, it is important to examine not only wood density but also its components, especially tracheid characteristics. We studied genetic variations in the following tracheid traits by earlywood （EW） and latewood （LW）： tracheid length （TL）, double wall thickness （WT）, radial lumen diameter （R_D1）, tangential lumen diameter （T_D1）, radial central diameter （R_D2）, and tangential central diameter （T_D2）. We also studied the relationship with the following growth traits： diameter at breast height （DBH）, height （H）, crown breadth south-north axis （NSC）, crown breadth east-west axis （EWC）, ring width （RW）, latewood percentage （LWP）, and wood density （WD）. All sample materials were collected from a 33-year old clonal seed orchard of Pinus tabuliformis Carr. Genetic variation among clones was moderate for all tracheid traits, 9.49-26.03%. Clones significantly affected WT, R_D1, R_D2, T_D1, T_D2, and the two ratios WT/R_D1 and TL/T_D2 in EW but had no effects in LW. Clones significantly affected TL in LW but had no effects in EW. H2/C was higher in LW （0.50） than in EW （0.20） for TL, while H 2/C was higher in EW （0.27-0.46） for other tracheid traits and the two ratios （TL/T_D2 and WT/R_D1） than in EW （0.06-0.22）. WD and TL were significantly positively correlated, but WT and TL were negatively correlated both at individual and clone levels; all tracheid diameters and the four ratio values （EW_WT/ R_D1, LW WT/R_D1, EW_TL/T_D2 and LW_TL/ T_D2）, were strongly positively correlated with DBH, H, NSC, WEC and RW, and strongly negatively correlated with WD both at individual and clone levels. The most important variables for predicting WD were LW_TL, EW_WT and R_D1 in both EW and LW （r2= 0.22）. Selecting the top 10% of the clones by DBH would improve DBH growth by 12.19% （wood density was reduced by 0.14%） and produced similar responses between EW and LW for all tracheid traits： a reduction of 0.94 and 3.69% in tracheid length and increases in tracheid diameters （from 0.36 to 5.24%） and double wall thickness （0.07 and 0.87%）. The two ratios WT/R_D1 and TL/T_D2 across tissues （EW and LW） declined 0.59 and 4.56%, respectively. The decreased tracheid length and the ratio between tracheid length and diameter is disadvantageous for pulp production. The unfavorable relationship of tracheid traits with wood density indicate that multiple trait selection using optimal economic weights and optimal breeding strategies are recommended for the current longterm breeding program for P. tabuliformis.

Effect of site and elevation on wood density and shrinkage and their relationships in Carpinus betulus

This study examined the effect of site and elevation on the oven-dry density and volumetric shrinkage of hornbeam （Carpinus betulus） wood. For this purpose, 45 normal hornbeam trees from three different sites （Mazandaran, Guilan and Golestan） at three elevations, 300 m （low elevation）, 700 m （intermediate elevation） and 1100 m （high elevation） from natural forest in northern Iran were selected. Disks were cut at breast height from mature wood and test samples were prepared to determine physical proper- ties, i.e., wood density and volumetric shrinkage. The results show that there are significant differences between site and elevation on these physical properties of wood. The interaction effects between site ~ elevation on wood density and volumetric shrinkage were also statistically significant. At any fixed site, wood density and volumetric shrinkage increased with elevation. As well, their values at Guilan were higher than those at the other two sites. The relationship between wood density and volumetric shrinkage was deter- mined by simple regression equations. Strong, positive relationships between wood density and volumetric shrinkage at each site were found. Again, these were stronger at the Guilan site than at the other two sites. Given a fixed site, the correlation at high eleva- tion was stronger than at the other two elevations.

Removing harvest residues from hardwood stands affects tree growth, wood density and stem wood nutrient concentration in European beech (Fagus sylvatica) and oak (Quercus spp.)

Background:Higher exportation of harvest residues from forests due to increased demand for woody biomass,has reportedly diminished soil mineral resources and may lead to degraded tree nutrition as well as growth.However,as nutrients become less available in the soil,the remobilization of nutrients in biomass tissues(plant internal cycling)helps sustain tree nutrition.Our study aims to quantify the impact of Removing Harvest Residues and Litter(RHRL)during five years on tree growth,wood density,and stem wood nutrient concentrations in young beech and oak forest stands.Result:Our study found that,RHRL significantly decreased tree growth ring width by 14%,and wood density by 3%,in beech trees,in near bark rings.RHRL also significantly reduced nutrient concentration in near bark and near pith areas of both studied species.Mg,Na and S were found lower by 44%,76%,and 56%,respectively,in near bark area of beech trees.In near bark area of oak trees,K,Ca,Mg,Na,S,and Fe were lower by 20%,25%,41%,48%,41%,and 16%,respectively.K and Mg concentrations decreased more strongly in near pith area compared to near bark area suggesting internal translocation of these two elements.Conclusion:In beech trees,wood density proved to be an important factor while quantifying the effect of removing harvest residuals on tree growth and biomass.Soil nutrient loss intensified the remobilization of nutrients con-tained in older tree rings(close to the pith)towards newly formed rings(close to bark).In our study,in beech trees,K was found to be the most recycled major nutrient.These results demonstrate the potential of such analysis for providing valuable insight into the effect of RHRL in premature stands on the physiological adaptive strategies of trees and an indication of soil fertility status.

Variability in Wood Density and Wood Fibre Characterization of Woody Species and Their Possible Utility in Northeastern Mexico

Context: Preliminary screening has been undertaken by woody species of Tamaulipan thornscrub for wood density and its utilization northeastern Mexico for different purposes and to find possible relationship of density with wood fibre characteristics. This technique can be used in the selection of species with high wood density for possible utility. Aims: It is to determine the variability in wood density and in fiber cell morphology and its length and among wood species of the Tamaulipan thornscrub, northeastern Mexico. Methods: Wood density and wood fibres are characterized in these woody species following standard methodology. Results: The results reveal large variability in wood density and in fibre cell morphology h. The species have been classified on the basis of wood density and its fibber cell morphology and has been recommended for their possible utilization for different purposes. Conclusions: Species desirable for strong furniture making, paper pulp, soft furniture, fence etc. can be selected on the basis of fibre length to breadth ratios as strong fibres for furniture and fibre cells with broad lumen and thin cell wall use for fabrication of paper pulp and other utilities.

Wood Density of Ten Native Trees and Shrubs and Its Possible Relation with a Few Wood Chemical Compositions

The present study was undertaken in Forest Science Faculty, Universidad de Nuevo Leon, Mexico on variability of Wood density and its possible relation to few wood chemical composition and wood fiber cell structure anatomy. The results reveal that among 10 specie studied, there exist a large variation in wood density (0.51 to 1.09), and few wood chemical composition such % carbón (37.14 to 44.07), nitrogen (9.18 to 19.22), sulphur (31.45 to 33/82), lignin (15/28 to 24.35), hemicellulose (19.94 to 27.36%), and % cellulose (33.69 to 45.92). In general, though there was no clear relationship between wood density and other chemical composition of wood. It was observed that the species having moderate to high wood density contained >40% carbón, >30% sulphur and >40% cellulose and more or less 20% lignin. It seems that carbón, sulphur, cellulose and lignin content contribute to greater density. The wood fiber cell with wall lignification seems to be related to higher wood density.

Relating estimates of wood properties of birch to stem form, age and species

Birch has long suffered from a lack of active forest management,leading many researchers to use mate-rial without a detailed management history.Data collected from three birch(Betula pendula Roth,B.pubescens Ehrh.)sites in southern Sweden were analyzed using regression analysis to detect any trends or differences in wood proper-ties that could be explained by stand history,tree age and stem form.All sites were genetics trials established in the same way.Estimates of acoustic velocity(AV)from non-destructive testing(NDT)and predicted AV had a higher correlation if data was pooled across sites and other stem form factors were considered.A subsample of stems had radial profiles of X-ray wood density and ring width by year created,and wood density was related to ring number from the pith and ring width.It seemed likely that wood density was negatively related to ring width for both birch species.Linear models had slight improvements if site and species were included,but only the youngest site with trees at age 15 had both birch species.This paper indicated that NDT values need to be considered separately,and any predictive models will likely be improved if they are specific to the site and birch species measured.

Basic density, extractive content and moisture sorption properties of Pinus pinaster wood infected with the pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

The pinewood nematode（PWN）, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, has become one of the most severe threats to pine forest worldwide. Nematodes, migrating through resin canals and feeding on the living cells, induce rapid metabolic changes in ray parenchyma cells, create cavitation areas, decrease xylem water content and oleoresin exudation, and cause necrosis of parenchyma and cambial cells. This study focused on the impact of PWN infection on technological parameters of wood and evaluated the impact of anatomic and biochemical incidences of tree defense reactions on basic density, extractive content and moisture sorption properties of Pinus pinaster wood.Samples of infected and uninfected wood were studied.The presence of nematodes reduced wood basic density by2 % and decreased the total content of extractives in infected wood as compared with uninfected（5.98 and8.90 % of dry wood mass, respectively）. Extractives in infected trees had inverse distribution along the trunk as compared with uninfected trees. The adsorption isotherms for infected and uninfected wood had similar positioning.We recorded differences（some statistically significant） in the equilibrium moisture content of infected and uninfected wood under varying environmental conditions. Despite the verified differences in wood basic density, extractive content and moisture sorption properties, the overall conclusion is that the PWN had a slight impact on these characteristics of wood.

Effect of wood density and water permeability on wood decomposition rates of 32 bornean rainforest trees

Aims a better understanding of wood litter decomposition is essential for predicting responses of forest ecosystems to global climate change.recent studies suggest that chemical properties of wood litters,rather than physical ones such as wood density,are more important for inter-specific differences in wood decomposition rates.However,empirical data are still limited,especially for tropical trees.In addition,decom-position rate of wood litter often varies with time,which makes inter-specific comparison difficult.We studied the wood decomposition of 32 rainforest trees to elucidate(i)the degree of interspecific variation in wood decomposition rate of a given size and configuration and(ii)if initial wood density and water permeability are consistent predictors of the overall decomposition rate and its pattern over time.Methods a common garden decomposition experiment was conducted in a tropical rainforest in malaysian borneo for 32 native tree species.small wood sticks were set on the forest floor and the weight loss was monitored monthly for 2.7 years.Important Findings We found large variation in the wood decomposition rate(a 49-fold range),suggesting that we need to consider this variation when cal-culating community-level carbon dynamics of tropical rain forests.the physical traits of wood,i.e.wood density and water permeability,were related to wood decomposition rate and its pattern over time.Decomposition half-time related positively and negatively to initial wood density and water permeability,respectively.the time-dependentrate model fitted better for 18 species(56%of the study species)that had higher water permeabilities than the others,suggesting that micelle porosity in wood relates to temporal changes in decomposition rate.

Effects of site conditions on growth and wood properties of Populus×euramericana cv.'74/76'

The growth and wood properties of 240 individual Populus×euramericana cv.’74/76’(hereafter poplar 107)trees planted in Hebei Plain,China was evaluated.Mean annual increments in height,breast height diameter and volume,as well as cellulose,hemicellulose and lignin contents,shrinkage,density,bending strength and modulus of elasticity in the heart wood and sap wood.Environmental factors influencing growth and wood properties were analyzed using correlation and stepwise regres sion.The results show that the coefficients of variation(CVs)of growth traits ranged from 10.6 to 22.4%.The CVs of the chemical properties of heartwood ranged from 4.3 to 30.2%,and for sap wood from 3.2 to 27.5%.The CVs of the physical and mechanical properties of heartwood ranged from 8.6 to 31.7%,and for sapwood from 6.4 to 29.9%.The results of one-way ANOVA showed that there were significant differences in growth traits and wood properties among sites.Soil pH,total and available phosphorus,total potassium,and soil organic matter were key soil factors affecting growth and wood properties of poplar 107,whereas mean annual ground temperatures and precipitation were the main climatic factors.To better cultivate poplar 107,area with less annual rainfall,slightly higher temperature and soil pH value close to neutral should be selected.

Growth and wood properties of a 38-year-old Populus simonii 3 P.nigra plantation established with different densities in semi-arid areas of northeastern China

To characterize the effects of plantation densities on the growth characteristics(diameter at breast level,tree height and volume)and the common wood properties,38-year-old Populus simonii 9 P.nigra clones planted with four levels of spacing(2 m 92 m,3 m 93 m,4 m 94 m,and 5 m 95 m)in a semi-arid area in northeastern China were examined.The results of ANOVA showed significant differences(P\0.01)for all the investigated growth traits and wood properties under different plantation densities,except for the chemical composition of wood.The repeatability and phenotypic variations of all the traits varied from 0.34 to 0.99 and from 13.45 to 59.65%,respectively.Except for wood density,which was significantly negatively correlated with the growth traits,a positive correlation was observed between the growth traits and all the other wood mechanical properties.However,most of the correlations between the growth traits and the chemical composition of the wood were not significant.The path analysis for the wood mechanical characteristics and the growth in the prediction of volume were significant and ranged from 0.18 to 0.72 for wood density and diameter at breast height,respectively,while those for the chemical composition of wood ranged from 0.001 to 0.336,which showed a low impact on the volume.The highest stand volume(610 m3)per hectare was observed with the 2 m 92 m spacing,which consequently provided a high total price and income,while a high individual volume growth per tree was observed with the 5 m 95 m spacing.The results suggested that for the poplar trees younger than 40 years in a semi-arid area in China,2 m 92 m spacing is suitable for obtaining a high volume per hectare,while 5 m 95 m spacing is best for obtaining a high individual volume per tree.

A cDNA microarray analysis of the molecular control of poplar wood properties

Molecular biological research into wood development and formation has been the focus in recent years, but the pace of discovery of related genes and their functions in the control of wood properties has been slow. The microarray technique--with its advantages of high throughput capacity, sensitivity, and reliability over other tools developed for investigating genes expression patterns-is capable of rapidly assaying thousands of genes. In this study, a cDNA microarray prepared from two cDNA libraries of developing poplar xylem tissues was used to assay gene expression patterns in immature xylem tissues at different heights from the main stem of Populus deltoides （15 years old）, which was confirmed to have distinct wood properties （microfibrillar angle, woody density） by X-ray. Two hundred seventy-four transcripts with differ- ential expression profles between the chips were screened out, and the individual clones were subjected to 5＇ sequencing. Using bioinformatic analysis, we identified candidate genes that may influence poplar wood properties, many of which belong to various regulatory and signal transduction gene families, such as zinc finger protein transcription factor, DNA-binding transcription factor, ethylene response factors, and so on. The results suggest that these genes may regulate enzymes involved in wood formation. Further work will be performed to clone these genes and determine how they influence poplar wood properties.

Allometric models for estimating aboveground biomass in the tropical woodlands of Ghana, West Africa

Background: Modelling aboveground biomass(AGB) in forest and woodland ecosystems is critical for accurate estimation of carbon stocks. However, scarcity of allometric models for predicting AGB remains an issue that has not been adequately addressed in Africa. In particular, locally developed models for estimating AGB in the tropical woodlands of Ghana have received little attention. In the absence of locally developed allometric models, Ghana will continue to use Tier 1 biomass data through the application of pantropic models. Without local allometric models it is not certain how Ghana would achieve Tier 2 and 3 levels under the United Nations programme for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. The objective of this study is to develop a mixedspecies allometric model for use in estimating AGB for the tropical woodlands in Ghana. Destructive sampling was carried out on 745 trees(as part of charcoal production) for the development of allometric equations. Diameter at breast height(dbh, i.e. 1.3 m above ground level), total tree height(H) and wood density(ρ) were used as predictors for the models. Seven models were compared and the best model selected based on model efficiency,bias(%) and corrected Akaike Information Criterion. The best model was validated by comparing its results with those of the pantropic model developed by Chave et al.(Glob Chang Biol 20:3177–3190, 2014) using equivalence test and conventional paired t-test.Results: The results revealed that the best model for estimating AGB in the tropical woodlands is AGB =0.0580ρ((dbh)2 H)0.999. The equivalence test showed that this model and the pantropic model developed by Chave et al.(Glob Chang Biol 20:3177–3190, 2014) were equivalent within ±10% of their mean predictions(p-values <0.0001 for one-tailed t-tests for both lower and upper bounds at 5% significant level), while the paired t-test revealed that the mean(181.44 ± 18.25 kg) of the model predictions of the best model of this study was significantly(n = 745, mean diff. = 16.50 ± 2.45 kg;S.E. = 1.25 kg;p < 0.001) greater than that(164.94 ± 15.82 kg) of the pantropic model of Chave et al.(Glob Chang Biol 20:3177–3190, 2014).Conclusion: The model developed in this study fills a critical gap in estimating AGB in tropical woodlands in Ghana and other West African countries with similar ecological conditions. Despite the equivalence with the pantropic model it remains superior to the model of Chave et al.(Glob Chang Biol 20:3177–3190, 2014) for the estimation of AGB in local tropical woodlands. It is a relevant tool for the attainment of Tier 2 and 3 levels for REDD+. The model is recommended for use in the tropical woodlands in Ghana and other West African countries in place of the use of pantropic models.

Axial variations in anatomical properties and basic density of Eucalypt urograndis hybrid(Eucalyptus grandis 3 E. urophylla)clones

We studied two clones of Eucalypt urograndis hybrid （Eucalyptus grandis × E. urophylla）, GR283 and GR330, grown in Tumkur district of Kamataka （India）, and felled 5-6 years old three trees of each clone. We recorded axial variations in heartwood content, bark properties, wood density and anatomical characteristics of wood in- cluding fibre length, fibre diameter, fibre wall thickness, lumen diameter, vessel frequency, vessel diameter and vessel element length. Clone GR283 had about 10 % heartwood, significantly lower than for clone GR330 （37 %）. Basic wood density along the tree height varied significantly within and between the clones. We observed significant variations in fibre length, fibre diameter and wall thickness within and between the two clones. Vessel frequency and vessel element length did not vary but vessel diameter differed significantly between the clones. With a greater proportion of sapwood, clone GR283 can be uti- lized for paper and pulp applications. Clone GR330 had a higher proportion of heartwood and lower wood density and, hence, is more suitable for light-weight material applications.

Developing allometric equations to estimate forest biomass for tree species categories based on phylogenetic relationships

The development of allometric biomass models is important process in biomass estimation because the reliability of forest biomass and carbon estimations largely depends on the accuracy and precision of such models.National Forest Inventories(NFI)are detailed assessments of forest resources at national and regional levels that provide valuable data for forest biomass estimation.However,the lack of biomass allometric equations for each tree species in the NFI currently hampers the estimation of national-scale forest biomass.The main objective of this study was to develop allometric biomass regression equations for each tree species in the NFI of China based on limited biomass observations.These equations optimally grouped NFI and biomass observation species according to their phylogenetic relationships.Significant phylogenetic signals demonstrated phylogenetic conservation of the crown-to-stem biomass ratio.Based on phylogenetic relationships,we grouped and matched NFI and biomass observation species into 22 categories.Allometric biomass regression models were developed for each of these 22 species categories,and the models performed successfully(R^(2)=0.97,root mean square error(RMSE)=12.9​t·ha^(–1),relative RMSE=11.5%).Furthermore,we found that phylogeny-based models performed more effectively than wood density-based models.The results suggest that grouping species based on their phylogenetic relationships is a reliable approach for the development and selection of accurate allometric equations.

Biomass Estimation Models for Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) Plantations in Ghana, West Africa

The role of cocoa systems for climate change mitigation and adaptation has increased substantially because of their capability to trap carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and deposited in the cocoa trees as carbon. Development of aboveground biomass (AGB) models for cocoa plantations is crucial for accurate estimation of carbon stocks in the cocoa systems, however, allometric models for estimating AGB for cocoa plantations remain a challenge for cocoa producing countries in Sub-Saharan Africa especially Ghana. The aim of this study is to develop allometric model that can be used for the estimation of AGB for cocoa plantations in Ghana, as well as West Africa. Destructive sampling was carried out on 110 cocoa trees obtained from the cocoa rehabilitation exercise for the development of the allometric models. Diameter at breast height (D), total tree height (H) and wood density (ρ) were used as predictors to develop seven models. The best model was selected based on coefficient of determination (R2), index of agreement (IA), root mean squared error (RMSE), bias (E%), mean absolute error (MAE) and corrected akaike information criterion (AICC) and percentage relative standard error (PRSE) of the estimated parameters. The selected model, which was the one with the predictors D and ρ, was given as;AGB = 0.7217ρ(D2)0.921. It was compared with the Yuliasmara et al. (2009) cocoa model using equivalence test and paired sample t-test. The two models were found to be equivalent within ±10% of their mean predictions (p < 0.0001) for one-tailed tests for both lower and upper limits, while the paired sample t-test rejected the null hypothesis with mean difference of 14.16 kg between the two models. This study is significant because it has provided a model to estimate AGB for the cocoa plantations in Ghana which is very important for the Ghana Cocoa-Forest REDD+ Programme and also can be used by other West African cocoa producing countries.

三倍体毛白杨新无性系木材气干密度和力学性质性状的遗传控制及对单板材育种的意义(英文)

The wood samples of 9 triploid clones of Populus tomentosa Carr. taken from a 9 year old clonal test site were analyzed in order to investigate the genetic variation of wood properties, including air dried wood density and some mechanical properties. The results showed that significant or extremely significant difference in air dried wood density and the mechanical properties existed among the clones, this means these wood properties were under moderate or strong genetic controls and could be improved by genetic manipulations. The radial and vertical variation patterns of air dried wood density were also studied and the results were found to coordinate with other previous research results. The vertical variation patterns of most mechanical properties within the individual tree also conformed to the general wood theories except the modulus of elasticity and cross section hardness. Among the mechanical properties, modulus of elasticity (MOE) and tangent section hardness were under strong genetic control, with the clonal repeatabilities being 0 90 and 0 80, respectively. However, the clonal repeatabilities of other mechanical properties under study were a little lower than above two indexes. Genetic correlation analysis indicated that super clonal selection and breeding for veneer timber could be realized through indirect selection of wood density and form indexes.

Re-estimating the changes and ranges of forest biomass carbon in China during the past 40 years

Background: In recent decades the future of global forests has been a matter of increasing concern, particularly in relation to the threat of forest ecosystem responses under potential climate change. To the future predictions of these responses, the current forest biomass carbon storage(FCS) should first be clarified as much as possible,especially at national scales. However, few studies have introduced how to verify an FCS estimate by delimiting the reasonable ranges. This paper addresses an estimation of national FCS and its verification using two-step process to narrow the uncertainty. Our study focuses on a methodology for reducing the uncertainty resulted by converting from growing stock volume to above-and below-ground biomass(AB biomass), so as to eliminate the significant bias in national scale estimations.Methods: We recommend splitting the estimation into two parts, one part for stem and the other part for AB biomass to preclude possible significant bias. Our method estimates the stem biomass from volume and wood density(WD), and converts the AB biomass from stem biomass by using allometric relationships.Results: Based on the presented two-step process, the estimation of China’s FCS is performed as an example to explicate how to infer the ranges of national FCS. The experimental results demonstrate a national FCS estimation within the reasonable ranges(relative errors: + 4.46% and-4.44%), e.g., 5.6–6.1 PgC for China’s forest ecosystem at the beginning of the 2010 s. These ranges are less than 0.52 PgC for confirming each FCS estimate of different periods during the last 40 years. In addition, our results suggest the upper-limits by specifying a highly impractical value of WD(0.7 t·m-3) on the national scale. As a control reference, this value decides what estimate is impossible to achieve for the FCS estimates.Conclusions: Presented methodological analysis highlights the possibility to determine a range that the true value could be located in. The two-step process will help to verify national FCS and also to reduce uncertainty in related studies. While the true value of national FCS is immeasurable, our work should motivate future studies that explore new estimations to approach the true value by narrowing the uncertainty in FCS estimations on national and global scales.