Acoustic measurements of models of military style supersonic nozzle jets

Modern military aircraft jet engines are designed with variable-geometry nozzles to provide optimal thrust in different operating conditions, depending on the flight envelope. How- ever, acoustic measurements for such nozzles are scarce, due to the cost involved in making full- scale measurements and the lack of details about the exact geometries of these nozzles. Thus the present effort at Pennsylvania State University （PSU） in partnership with GE Aviation and the NASA Glenn Research Center is aiming to study and characterize the acoustic field produced by supersonic jets issuing from converging-diverging military style nozzles, and to identify and test promising noise reduction techniques. An equally important objective is to develop methodology for using data obtained from small- and moderate-scale experiments to reliably predict the full-scale engine noise. The experimental results presented show reasonable agreement between small-scale and medium-scale jets, as well as between heated jets and heat-simulated ones.

Effect of gas saturation on P-wave velocity in tight sandstone

By measuring the variation of the P-and S-wave velocities of tight sandstone samples under water saturation,it was confirmed that with the decrease in water saturation,the P-wave velocity first decreased and then increased.The variation in velocity was influenced by the sandstone’s porosity.The commonly used Gassmann equation based on fluid substitution theory was studied.Comparing the calculated results with the measured data,it was found that the Gassmann equation agreed well with the measured data at high water saturation,but it could not explain the bending phenomenon of P-wave velocity at low saturation.This indicated that these equations could not accurately describe the relationship between fluid content and rock acoustic velocity.The reasons for this phenomenon were discussed through Taylor’s expansion.The coefficients of the fitting formula were calculated and verified by fitting the measured acoustic velocity changes of the cores.The relationship between P-wave velocity and saturation was discussed,which provides experimental support for calculating saturation using seismic and acoustic logging data.

Development of in-situ Marine Sediment Geo-Acoustic Measurement System with Real-Time and Multi Frequencies (the Second Generation)

Compared with the laboratory acoustic measurement of sediment samples, the in-situ acoustic measurement in marine sediment is considered more accurate and rehable, because it covers all of the surrounding environment factors and avoids the disturbance during the course of sampling and transporting of sediment samples. A new multi-frequency in-situ geoacoustic measurement system （MFIS^AMS） has been developed. The system can provide acoustic vdocity （compressional wave） and attenuation profiles of the uppermost 4 - 8 m sediment in the seafloor. It consists of 8 channels with 12 frequencies （multi-frequencies） and 0.5 - 2 MHz sampling rates. The data collected can be transmiuted in real-time. Associated with inclinometer and altimeter, it can provide the data for depth emendation. Acoustic velocity and attenuation data have been obtained from two in-situ experiments conducted in the Hangzhou Bay.

Study of A Geo-Acoustic Model of Gas-Bearing Sediment and Its Application in Sediment with Low Acoustic Veloctiy

A new geo-acoustic model for gas-bearing sediment is proposed based on the work of Dvorkin and Prasad, and Biot theory. Only five geophysical parameters： sediment mineral composition, free gas saturation, tortuosity （also known as the structure factor）, permeability, and porosity, are considered in the model. A benefit of this model is that we need only five parameters instead of ten parameters in the Blot＇ s formulas for acoustic velocity and attenuation calculation. Here the model is demonstrated with the in-situ experimental data collected from the Hangzhou Bay, China. The results of this study suggest that free gas content in sediment is the most critical condition resulting in a low acoustic velocity （compressional wave）. The respective contributions of the other four parameters in the model are also discussed.

Mesozoic–Cenozoic stress field magnitude in Sichuan Basin, China and its adjacent areas and the implication on shale gas reservoir: Determination by acoustic emission in rocks

The Sichuan Basin is one of the vital basins in China,boasting abundant hydrocarbon reservoirs.To clarify the intensity of the tectonic stress field of different tectonic episodes since the Mesozoic and to identify the regional dynamic background of different tectonic movements in the Sichuan Basin and its adjacent areas,the characteristics of the acoustic emission in rocks in different strata of these areas were researched in this paper.Meanwhile,the tectonic stress magnitude in these areas since the Mesozoic was restored.The laws state that the tectonic stress varied with depth was revealed,followed by the discussion of the influence of structural stress intensity on structural patterns in different tectonic episodes.These were conducted based on the paleostress measurement by acoustic emission method and the inversion principle of the stress fields in ancient periods and the present,as well as previous research achievements.The results of this paper demonstrate that the third episode of Yanshanian Movement(Yanshanian III)had the maximum activity intensity and tremendously influenced the structural pattern in the study area.The maximum horizontal principal stress of Yanshanian III varied with depth as follows:0.0168 x+37.001(MPa),R^2=0.8891.The regional structural fractures were mainly formed in Yanshanian III in Xujiahe Formation,west Sichuan Basin,of which the maximum paleoprincipal stress ranging from 85.1 MPa to 120.1 MPa.In addition,the law stating the present maximum horizontal principal stress varies with depth was determined to be 0.0159 x+10.221(MPa),R^2=0.7868 in Wuling Mountain area.Meanwhile,it was determined to be 0.0221 x+9.4733(MPa),R^2=0.9121 in the western part of Xuefeng Mountain area and 0.0174 x+10.247(MPa),R^2=0.8064 in the whole study area.These research results will not only provide data for the simulation of stress field,the evaluation of deformation degree,and the prediction of structural fractures,but also offer absolute geological scientific bases for the elevation of favorable shale gas preservation.

Effects of Temperature,Salinity,and Fluid Type on Acoustic Characteristics of Turbulent Flow Around Circular Cylinder

The effects of the temperature,salinity,and fluid type on the acoustic characteristics of turbulent flow around a circular cylinder were numerically investigated for the Reynolds numbers of 2.25×10^(4),4.5×10^(4),and 9.0×10^(4).Various hybrid methodsReynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes(BANS)with the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings(FWH)model,detached-eddy simulation(DES)with FWH,and large-eddy simulation with FWH-were used for the acoustic analyses,and their performances were evaluated by comparing the predicted results with the experimental data.The DES-FWH hybrid method was found to be suitable for the aero-and hydro-acoustic analysis.The hydro-acoustic measurements were performed in a silent circulation channel for the Reynolds number of 2.25×10^(4).The results showed that the fluid temperature caused an increase in the overall sound pressure levels(OASPLs)and the maximum sound pressure levels(SPL_(T))for the air medium;however,it caused a decrease for the water medium.The salinity had smaller effects on the OASPL and SPLT compared to the temperature.Moreover,the main peak frequency increased with the air temperature but decreased with the water temperature,and it was nearly constant with the change in the salinity ratio.The SPLT and OASPL for the water medium were quite higher than those for the air medium.

Improving sound diffusion in a reverberation tank using a randomly fluctuating surface

Underwater reverberation environments that satisfy the conditions of uniformity and isotropy of the diffuse field can be used to measure the acoustic characteristics of underwater targets.This study combines two practical indicators—the standard deviation of the absolute sound pressure field(to indicate uniformity)and the analysis of the wavenumber spectrum in the spherical harmonics domain(to indicate isotropy)—for an accurate evaluation of the diffusion of the sound field in a reverberation tank.A method is proposed that can improve the narrow-band diffusion of the sound field by employing a randomly fluctuating surface.An acoustic experiment was performed in a reverberation water tank(1.2 m×1 m×0.8 m),where a randomly fluctuating surface was generated by making waves.The experimental results show that as the wave motion contributes effectively to the random reflection of sound rays in all directions,the uniformity and isotropy are improved significantly when the surface is fluctuating randomly.This work helps to ensure accurate measurements of the characteristics of underwater targets in reverberation tanks.

An Investigation of Innovative Experimental and Numerical Techniques to Detect Boundary Layer Transition

Different methods to detect boundary layer transition are investigated within the scope of this paper. Laminar and turbulent boundary layers exhibit a significantly different behavior, not only regarding skin friction but also for heat-transfer which affects the blade cooling design. The present work presents a novel and non-intrusive measurement technique to detect the transition, based on acoustic concepts. The reliability of the technique was investigated by means of boundary layer measurements over a fiat plate in subsonic flow conditions. After a preliminary assessment with a conventional Preston tube, a row of microphones were installed along the plate to correlate transition pressure fluctuations. To provide a comprehensive representation of the experiment, dedicated measurements with a fast response aerodynamic pressure probe were performed to determine the turbulence intensity and the dissipation rate upstream of the flat plate. The experimental results were systematically compared with calculations performed with three different computational fluid dynamics solvers （ANSYS-Fluent, ANSYS-CFX, OpenFOAM） and using both the k-k1-ω and the γ-Reθ transition models. Results show a fair agreement between CFD （computational fluid dynamics） predictions and the acoustic technique, suggesting that this latter might represent an interesting alternative option for transition measurements.

Use of acoustic intensity measurements in underwater acoustics (Modern state and prospects)

This paper discusses scalar and vector characteristics of underwater ambient noise which were explored by the authors and their colleagues in different regions of the Earth Ocean.The measurements presented were performed in 6 Hz - 1000 Hz band, at depths up to 1000 m and wind speeds less than 15 m/s. The following questions are addressed: ratio between edsotropic (coherent) and isotropic (diffusive) parts of ambient noise; noise energy transport and its cotmection with surface waves propagation direction; noise energy flow cancenation by opposite energy flow of signal; signal-to-noise ratio for combined receiver in dynamic noise field. It follows from the results presellted, that further development of underwater intensity measurements opens new opportunities for investigations in the fields of underwater acoustics and oceanology.

Method for Measuring Self-noise of Vector Hydrophones

The Vector Hydrophone(VH) is widely used to remotely detect underwater targets. Accurately measuring the self-noise of the VH provides an important basis for evaluating the performance of the detection system in which it is utilized, since the ability to acquire weak signals is determined by the VH self-noise level. To accurately measure the VH self-noise level in actual working conditions, the Dual-channel Transfer Function Method(DTFM) is proposed to reduce ambient background noise interference. In this paper, the underlying principles of DTFM in reducing ambient background noise is analyzed. The numerical simulations to determine the influence of ambient background noise, and the sensitivity difference of the two VHs on the measurement results are studied. The results of measuring the VH self-noise level in a small laboratory water tank by using DTMF indicate that ambient background noise interference can be reduced effectively by employing DTMF, more accurate self-noise level can be obtained as well. The DTMF provides an effective method for accurately measuring the self-noise level of VHs and also provides technical support for the practical application of the VH in underwater acoustics.

Massage and vocal training in a case of spasmodic dysphonia

A 35-year-old female patient with spasmodic dysphonia underwent massage and vocal training. Chinese manipulation was administered to Tiantu （CV 22） and Lianquan （CV 23）, the convergent acupoints of the conception meridian and Yin link vessel, Yamen （GV 15） and Fengfu （GV 16）, the convergent acupoints of Du meridian and Yang link vessel, as well as large intestine channel of hand Yangming Hegu （LI 4）, by gently pressing and rubbing for stimulation. In addition, throat muscle massage therapy and vocal training were performed. Results were evaluated using acoustic measurements in combination with a single statistical method. A comprehensive treatment combining vocal training and face-neck massage was shown to relieve dystonia of facial-cervical muscles in patients, as well as improve voice quality while providing a safe treatment method.

Single-borehole measuring method for broken rock zone in gently inclined thin layer weakness structure

According to the structural characteristics of gently inclined thin layer rock mass in which lots of weak interlayer existed,the concept of gently inclined thin layer weakness structure was proposed.If single-borehole measuring method of the acoustic along the conventional arrangement mode was used in measuring the broken rock zone in this structure,the change of the relationship curves (Vp-L) between acoustic p-wave velocity (Vp) and borehole depth (L) would present the irregular feature due to the mechanical characteristics of layered rock mass and harmful effects of weak interlayers,and the scope of broken rock zone couldn't be defined quickly.Based on the analysis of the me- chanical characteristics of layered rock mass,the propagation rule of acoustic and distri- butions characteristics of plastic zone and slip zone in layered rock mass,new arrange- ment mode of acoustic measuring boreholes for broken rock zone in gently inclined thin layer weakness structure was proposed.Namely,the measuring boreholes in two sides were parallel to the strata,the measuring boreholes in the roof and floor perpendicular to the strata.Besides the controlling depth of the measuring boreholes in the scope of the large plastic zones or the large slip zones should be increased.Engineering example showed that new acoustic measuring boreholes arrangement mode had the better appli- cability and could determine the scope of the broken rock zone in the gently inclined thin layer weakness structure quickly.

Reliability analysis of in-situ stress measurement using circumferential velocity anisotropy

In-situ stress measurement for deep reservoir formation is difficult in terms of security, reliability and technique. Acoustic velocity anisotropy test is a basic method for stress measurement of rock cores, which is based on the distribution of acoustic velocity in different directions around rock cores. The heterogeneity of core samples, such as fractures and gravel contained, can also lead to wave velocity anisotropy. Therefore, the corresponding reliability evaluation method is established to exclude some other anisotropy factors caused by non-tectonic stresses. In this paper, the reliability of testing results is evaluated from three aspects, i.e. phase difference, anisotropy index and waveform, to remove the factors caused by non-tectonic stresses.

Measurement of the echo reduction for underwater acoustic passive materials by using the time reversal technique

A measuring method of the echo reduction of passive materials by using the time reversal（TR） technique is presented. To measure the echo reduction of a sample with this approach, the received signals are firstly focused according to the TR theory. Then, the sample is removed and the TR processing is again employed to realize the focus of the received signal.Finally, the echo reduction of the sample is evaluated with these focusing signals. Besides, to calibrate the measured echo reduction via the TR technique, a standard sample is employed to measure a constant coefficient that only depends on the measurement environment. An aluminum plate sample and a steel plate sample with the same size of 1.1 mxl.O m x0.005 m axe tested in a wave guide tank. The experimental results show that the calibrated values are well consistent with theoretical results under the free field at the measured frequency range of0.5-20 kHz. The relative errors of all the measured values are less than 10% and the values of the expanded uncertainty are less than 1.5 dB. The TR processing focuses the energy in spatial domain and temporal domain, so it can be used to measure the echo reduction of passive materials in the environments with reflections induced by boundaries and low frequency sources.

Measurement of insertion loss for underwater acoustic passive materials with the time reversal technique

A method using the time reversal（TR） technique to measure the insertion loss（IL） of passive materials is presented.Firstly the received signals are focused according to the TR theory when there is not a sample between the source and the received array.Then,the sample is placed near the received array and the TR processing is again employed to realize the focus of the received signal.Finally,the IL of the sample is evaluated from these focusing signals.Because the TR processing can focus the energy in spatial domain and time domain,the method can be used to measure acoustic properties of passive materials in a waveguide tank with reflections induced by boundaries or with low source frequencies.Two samples with the same size of 1.1 m×1.0 m×5 mm are tested in the waveguide tank.The method is demonstrated by the comparison of the theoretical and the experimental results in the measured frequency range of 1-20 kHz.

Measurement of acoustic field radiated by low frequency power ultrasonic transducer with laser-interferometer

Based on the piezo-optic effect of medium, the refractive index of medium is the function of its density, and so it's also the function of acoustic pressure. Therefore, acoustic pressure in the optical path everywhere can be determined absolutely by laser-interferometric technique and relative distribution of pressure in the middle and far acoustic field, which can be obtained from theory or experiment respectively. Theory and experiment of measurement of pressure in acoustic field with laser-interferometer are introduced. Distribution of pressure radiated by a power ultrasonic transducer is determined by laser interferometric technique. The theoretical and experimental results are in good agreement. The receiving sensitivity of a PVDF (Polyvinylidene fluoride) transducer in free field is also calibrated absolutely due to above results and its sensitivity is -118.5 dB.

A study of measuring acoustic velocities of thin and hard sea-bed layers

It has been known that the error of measuring acoustic veloicities of thin sediment layers by the well-known T2-X2 approach is usually untolerable, and that this approach is unavailable in the case where sea-bed is hard because no echo from any subsurface below sea-bottom can be received. Therefore applying the ray-parameter method to thin layers and the refraction method to hard layers need to be considered in an acoustic velocity measurement system composed of a sound source and a towed hydrophone streamer. Some problems of practical importance about the applications of the two methods, such as echo-data processing procedures and error estimations in measuring acoustic veloicities, are discussed, and the effectiveness of theoretical analyses has been verified through computer simulations.

Method based on broadband compressed pulse superposition to measure properties of underwater acoustic materials

A method is proposed for the measurements of the performances of underwater acoustic finite sized large area material samples in a free field by using broadband pulse compression technique. As the result of which, the low-frequency cutoff of the standard tests is obviously reduced, and the broadband measurements are also realized. The experimental system provides measurements of complex reflection and transmission coefficients at continuous frequency points. From the data one can obtain the following acoustic parameters: echo reduction and insertion loss, absorption and attenuation coefficients, etc. The measurements are performed for two actual panels with the size 1 m x 1 m in the frequency range from 2-20 kHz.

Investigation on method for measuring dynamic shear modulus of underwater acoustic structure materials

A new method is described to measure the dynamic shear modulus of underwater acoustic structure materials in a small anechoic water tank by using a broadband parametric source, a precise coordinate installation and techniques of signal processing in the frequency range of 20 kHz - 100 kHz. The typical size of material samples is 500×500 mm2. Basic principles, experiment installation and measured results are also presented

DFB fiber laser sensor for simultaneous measurement of acoustic and magnetic fields

A novel distributed feedback（DFB） fiber laser sensor, which can measure acoustic and magnetic fields simultaneously, is proposed. The magnetic field can be measured by detecting the change of resonant frequency of the fiber laser, and the acoustic pressure can be measured by detecting the phase shift of the fiber laser. Both of the signals can be simultaneously demodulated in the frequency domain without affecting each other. Experimental studies show that the acoustic pressure sensitivity of this sensor is about-130 d B（0 dB re 1 pm∕μPa） and the sensor has a good linearity with a magnetic field sensitivity of 0.57 Hz∕mT.