Formula for average energy required to produce a secondary electron in an insulator

Based on a simple classical model specifying that the primary electrons interact with the electrons of a lattice through the Coulomb force and a conclusion that the lattice scattering can be ignored, the formula for the average energy required to produce a secondary electron （ε） is obtained. On the basis of the energy band of an insulator and the formula for e, the formula for the average energy required to produce a secondary electron in an insulator （εi） is deduced as a function of the width of the forbidden band （Eg） and electron affinity X. Experimental values and the εi values calculated with the formula are compared, and the results validate the theory that explains the relationships among Eg, X, and ei and suggest that the formula for εi is universal on the condition that the primary electrons at any energy hit the insulator.

Constraint dependence of average potential energy of a passive particle in an active bath

We quantify the mean potential energy of a passive colloidal particle harmonically confined in a bacterial solution using optical traps.We find that the average potential energy of the passive particle depends on the trap stiffness,in contrast to the equilibrium case where energy partition is independent of the external constraints.The constraint dependence of the mean potential energy originates from the fact that the persistent collisions between the passive particle and the active bacteria are influenced by the particle relaxation dynamics.Our experimental results are consistent with the Brownian dynamics simulations,and confirm the recent theoretical prediction.

Energy average formula of photon gas rederived by using the generalised Hermann-Feynman theorem

By virtue of the generalised Hermann-Feynmam theorem we re-derive the energy average formula of photon gas. This is another useful application of the theorem.

Stabilizing Energy Consumption in Unequal Clusters of Wireless Sensor Networks

In the past few decades,Energy Efficiency(EE)has been a significant challenge in Wireless Sensor Networks(WSNs).WSN requires reduced transmission delay and higher throughput with high quality services,it further pays much attention in increased energy consumption to improve the network lifetime.To collect and transmit data Clustering based routing algorithm is considered as an effective way.Cluster Head(CH)acts as an essential role in network connectivity and perform data transmission and data aggregation,where the energy consumption is superior to non-CH nodes.Conventional clustering approaches attempts to cluster nodes of same size.Moreover,owing to randomly distributed node distribution,a cluster with equal nodes is not an obvious possibility to reduce the energy consumption.To resolve this issue,this paper provides a novel,Balanced-Imbalanced Cluster Algorithm(B-IBCA)with a Stabilized Boltzmann Approach(SBA)that attempts to balance the energy dissipation across uneven clusters in WSNs.B-IBCA utilizes stabilizing logic to maintain the consistency of energy consumption among sensor nodes’.So as to handle the changing topological characteristics of sensor nodes,this stability based Boltzmann estimation algorithm allocates proper radius amongst the sensor nodes.The simulation shows that the proposed B-IBCA outperforms effectually over other approaches in terms of energy efficiency,lifetime,network stability,average residual energy and so on.

The Potential Energy of Nucleon and Nuclear Structure

This article proposes the potential energy function of nucleon in nucleus, derives the expression equation of nuclear force, shows that nucleus has the shell structure by the solving the Schr?dinger equation of nucleon, obtains the magic numbers, and interprets the past experimental results in theory;for example the radius of nucleus is proportional to the cubic root of nucleon number, the nuclear force is repulsive in the depths of nucleus and attractive in the surface layer, and the variation of average binding energy of nucleons with the nucleon number.

Diagnosis of Electronic Excitation Temperature in Surface Dielectric Barrier Discharge Plasmas at Atmospheric Pressure

The electronic excitation temperature of a surface dielectric barrier discharge （DBD） at atmospheric pressure has been experimentally investigated by optical emission spectroscopic measurements combined with numerical simulation. Experiments have been carried out to deter- mine the spatial distribution of electric field by using FEM software and the electronic excitation temperature in discharge by calculating ratio of two relative intensities of atomic spectral lines. In this work, we choose seven Ar atomic emission lines at 415.86 nm [（3s^23p^5）5p →（3s^23p^5）4s] and 706.7 nm, 714.7 nm, 738.4 nm, 751.5 nm, 794.8 nm and 800.6 nm [（3s^23p^5）4p → （3s^23p^5）4s] to estimate the excitation temperature under a Boltzmann approximation. The average electron energy is evaluated in each discharge by using line ratio of 337.1 nm （N2（C^3Пu →B3Пg）） to 391.4 nm （N2^＋（B2 ∑u^＋→ ∑g^＋））. Furthermore, variations of the electronic excitation tempera- ture are presented versus dielectric thickness and dielectric materials. The discharge is stable and uniform along the axial direction, and the electronic excitation temperature at the edge of the copper electrode is the largest. The corresponding average electron energy is in the range of 1.6- 5.1 eV and the electric field is in 1.7-3.2 MV/m, when the distance from copper electrode varies from 0 cm to 6 cm. Moreover, the electronic excitation temperature with a higher permittivity leads to a higher dissipated electrical power.

A Semi-Analytical Method for the PDFs of A Ship Rolling in Random Oblique Waves

The PDFs(probability density functions) and probability of a ship rolling under the random parametric and forced excitations were studied by a semi-analytical method. The rolling motion equation of the ship in random oblique waves was established. The righting arm obtained by the numerical simulation was approximately fitted by an analytical function. The irregular waves were decomposed into two Gauss stationary random processes, and the CARMA(2, 1) model was used to fit the spectral density function of parametric and forced excitations. The stochastic energy envelope averaging method was used to solve the PDFs and the probability. The validity of the semi-analytical method was verified by the Monte Carlo method. The C11 ship was taken as an example, and the influences of the system parameters on the PDFs and probability were analyzed. The results show that the probability of ship rolling is affected by the characteristic wave height, wave length, and the heading angle. In order to provide proper advice for the ship’s manoeuvring, the parametric excitations should be considered appropriately when the ship navigates in the oblique seas.

Path integral Monte Carlo study of(H_2)_n@C_(70)(n = 1, 2, 3)

The path integral Monte Carlo(PIMC) method is employed to study the thermal properties of C70 with one, two,and three H2 molecules confined in the cage, respectively. The interaction energies and vibrationally averaged spatial distributions under different temperatures are calculated to evaluate the stabilities of(H2)n@C70(n = 1, 2, 3). The results show that(H2)2@C70is more stable than H2@C70. The interaction energy slowly changes in a large temperature range,so temperature has little effect on the stability of the system. For H2@C70and(H2)2@C70, the interaction energies keep negative; however, when three H2 molecules are in the cage, the interaction energy rapidly increases to a positive value.This implies that at most two H2 molecules can be trapped by C70. With an increase of temperature, the peak of the spatial distribution gradually shifts away from the center of the cage, but the maximum distance from the center of H2 molecule to the cage center is much smaller than the average radius of C70.

SRN-LEACH: an energy-efficient leach protocol with random number stabilisation for WSNs

The power supplies of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are not replaceable orrechargeable forsensors. For reducing the communication protocols’ impact onthe sensor network’s energy dissipation,various protocols or mechanisms havebeen proposed. Therefore, this article proposesa stable random number-basedLEACH protocol to stabilize the random number generation toimprove the CHselection efficiency. The wireless sensor network’s average node energy (ANE)ismultiplied by the random number that relies on the nodes’ energy. A nodegrade algorithm(NGA) based relay selection is introduced for inter andintracluster communication for energy efficiencyenhancement. The proposed NGA calculates the grade of a node using residual energy,distance from CHs,and its traffic parameters. Based on the simulation results, the proposedSRN-LEACH protocol shows superior performance as compared to existing protocolsincludingreduced energy dissipation, improved communication quality, andNLT. The proposed methodattains a minimum average delay of 0.136ms, 0.95% PDR, 148kbps TP rate, and 98% NLT.

The Parametric Identification of a System with Unclear Input information

This paper develops an average power and energy method for the parametric identification of a system. The new method makes it possible to identify the parameters of a system depending only on its output information, and can be used in both linear and non-linear systems.

Rotating Squeezed Vacua as Time Machines

Squeezed quantum vacua seems to violate the averaged null energy conditions (ANEC’s), because they have a negative energy density. When treated as a perfect fluid, rapidly rotating Casimir plates will create vorticity in the vacuum bounded by them. The geometry resulting from an arbitrarily extended Casimir plates along their axis of rotation is similar to van Stockum spacetime. We observe closed timelike curves (CTC’s) forming in the exterior of the system resulting from frame dragging. The exterior geometry of this system is similar to Kerr geometry, but because of violation of ANEC, the Cauchy horizon lies outside the system unlike Kerr blackholes, giving more emphasis on whether spacetime is multiply connected at the microscopic level.

Distributed Energy Sharing in Energy Internet Through Distributed Averaging

This paper proposes a distributed averaging iteration algorithm for energy sharing in microgrids of Energy Internet based on common gossip algorithms. This algorithm is completely distributed and only requires communications between neighbors. Through this algorithm, the Energy Internet not only allocates the energy effectively based on the load condition of grids, but also reasonably schedules the energy transmitted between neighboring grids. This study applies theoretical analysis to discuss the condition in which this algorithm can finally reach supply-and-demand balance. Subsequently, the related simulation validates the performance of the algorithm under various conditions.

Measurement of ^(59)Co(ai,x)reaction cross sections with the fast neutrons based on the ^(9)Be(p,n)reaction

The cross sections of the ^(59)Co(n,x)reaction in the average energy range of 15.2-37.2 MeV were meas-ured using activation and an off-line γ-ray spectrometric technique.The neutrons were generated from the ^(9)Be(p,n)reaction with proton beam energies of 25-45 MeV at the MC-50 Cyclotron facility of the Korean Institute of Radi-ological and Medical Sciences(KIRAMS).Theoretical cal lculations of neutron-induced reactions on ^(59)Co were per-formed using the nuclear model code TALYS-1.9.The results for the ^(59)Co(n,x)reactions were compared with the theoretical values obtained using TALYS-1.9 and the literature data provided in EXFOR and the TENDL 2019 nuc-lear data library.The theoretical values obtained using TALYS-1.9 with adjusted parameters are comparable to the experimental data.The measured reaction cross sections of a few radionuclides are new,and the others are compar-able to the literature data,and thus,they can strengthen the database.The present study on cross sections leads to useful insight into the mechanisms of ^(59)Co(n,x)reactions.