Tight gas charging and accumulation mechanisms and mathematical model

The gas-water distribution and production heterogeneity of tight gas reservoirs have been summarized from experimental and geological observations, but the charging and accumulation mechanisms have not been examined quantitatively by mathematical model. The tight gas charging and accumulation mechanisms were revealed from a combination of physical simulation of nuclear magnetic resonance coupling displacement, numerical simulation considering material and mechanical equilibria, as well as actual geological observation. The results show that gas migrates into tight rocks to preferentially form a gas saturation stabilization zone near the source-reservoir interface. When the gas source is insufficient, gas saturation reduction zone and uncharged zone are formed in sequence from the source-reservoir interface. The better the source rock conditions with more gas expulsion volume and higher overpressure, the thicker the gas saturation stabilization and reduction zones, and the higher the overall gas saturation. When the source rock conditions are limited, the better the tight reservoir conditions with higher porosity and permeability as well as larger pore throat, the thinner the gas saturation stabilization and reduction zones, but the gas saturation is high. The sweet spot of tight gas is developed in the high-quality reservoir near the source rock, which often corresponds to the gas saturation stabilization zone. The numerical simulation results by mathematical model agree well with the physical simulation results by nuclear magnetic resonance coupling displacement, and reasonably explain the gas-water distribution and production pattern of deep reservoirs in the Xujiaweizi fault depression of the Songliao Basin and tight gas reservoirs in the Linxing-Huangfu area of the Ordos Basin.

Superimposed hydrocarbon accumulation through multi-source and multi-stage evolution in the Cambrian Xixiangchi Group of eastern Sichuan Basin:A case study of the Pingqiao gas-bearing anticline

The Xixiangchi Group in eastern Sichuan Basin has great potential for natural gas exploration.However,there is a lack of in-depth studies of the hydrocarbon sources and the formation and evolution of gas reservoirs in this Group.Systematic investigation about the gas reservoir in Pingqiao anticline was consequently carried out in terms of characteristics of reservoir bitumen,the geochemical characteristics of natural gas,diagenetic minerals,and fluid inclusions.Based on this,combined with the reconstruction of the burial history,thermal evolution history and uplifting history of strata,and analysis of the regional tectonic settings,the hydrocarbon sources were identified and the formation and evolutionary processes of the gas reservoirs in Xixiangchi Group was revealed in this study.It was shown that the gas reservoirs have mixed gas sources from the shale source rocks in the Lower Cambrian Qiongzhusi Formation and in the Upper Ordovician Wufeng Formation-Lower Silurian Longmaxi Formation,and experienced several evolutionary stages,including the paleo-oil reservoir stage from the Late Siliurian to the Middle Permian,the paleo-gas reservoir stage from the Late Permian to the Early Cretaceous,and the superimposed accumulation and mixed-source gas reservoir stage since the Late Cretaceous.The mixed-source gas reservoir is formed by the adjustment of the Xixiangchi Group paleo-gas reservoirs and depressurization of the overpressure Wufeng-Longmaxi shale gas reservoirs and the charging of gas into the Xixiangchi Group reservoir of the Pingqiao anticline since the Late Cretaceous,which show obvious superimposed accumulation characteristics.There are different accumulation patterns in different geological periods.The accumulation pattern of the“old source-young reservoir”(i.e.hydrocarbons generated from older source rocks accumulating in younger reservoirs)dominates before the Late Cretaceous,and that of“juxtaposed young source-old reservoir”(i.e.hydrocarbons generated from younger source rocks accumulating in juxtaposed older reservoirs)dominates after the Early Cretaceous.Moreover,faults acted as critical vertical pathways for hydrocarbon migration during the evolution of the Xixiangchi Group gas reservoirs.This model provides new insights and theoretical basis for evaluation and mapping of the Xixiangchi Group play fairway in eastern Sichuan Basin.

Distribution Characteristics and Accumulation Model for the Coal-formed Gas Generated from Permo-Carboniferous Coal Measures in Bohai Bay Basin, China: A Review

Coal-formed gas generated from the Permo-Carboniferous coal measures has become one of the most important targets for deep hydrocarbon exploration in the Bohai Bay Basin,offshore eastern China.However,the proven gas reserves from this source rock remain low to date,and the distribution characteristics and accumulation model for the coal-formed gas are not clear.Here we review the coal-formed gas deposits formed from the Permo-Carboniferous coal measures in the Bohai Bay Basin.The accumulations are scattered,and dominated by middle-small sized gas fields,of which the proven reserves ranging from 0.002 to 149.4×108 m3 with an average of 44.30×108 m3 and a mid-point of 8.16×108 m3.The commercially valuable gas fields are mainly found in the central and southern parts of the basin.Vertically,the coal-formed gas is accumulated at multiple stratigraphic levels from Paleogene to Archaeozoic,among which the Paleogene and PermoCarboniferous are the main reservoir strata.According to the transporting pathway,filling mechanism and the relationship between source rocks and reservoir,the coal-formed gas accumulation model can be defined into three types:"Upward migrated,fault transported gas"accumulation model,"Laterally migrated,sandbody transported gas"accumulation model,and"Downward migrated,sub-source,fracture transported gas"accumulation model.Source rock distribution,thermal evolution and hydrocarbon generation capacity are the fundamental controlling factors for the macro distribution and enrichment of the coal-formed gas.The fault activity and the configuration of fault and caprock control the vertical enrichment pattern.

Upper Paleozoic total petroleum system and geological model of natural gas enrichment in Ordos Basin, NW China

Based on the analysis of Upper Paleozoic source rocks, source-reservoir-caprock assemblage, and gas accumulation characteristics in the Ordos Basin, the gas accumulation geological model of total petroleum system is determined. Then, taking the Carboniferous Benxi Formation and the Permian Taiyuan Formation and Shanxi Formation as examples, the main controlling factors of gas accumulation and enrichment are discussed, and the gas enrichment models of total petroleum system are established. The results show that the source rocks, faults and tight reservoirs and their mutual coupling relations control the distribution and enrichment of gas. Specifically, the distribution and hydrocarbon generation capacity of source rocks control the enrichment degree and distribution range of retained shale gas and tight gas in the source. The coupling between the hydrocarbon generation capacity of source rocks and the physical properties of tight reservoirs controls the distribution and sweet spot development of near-source tight gas in the basin center. The far-source tight gas in the basin margin is mainly controlled by the distribution of faults, and the distribution of inner-source, near-source and far-source gas is adjusted and reformed by faults. Generally, the Upper Paleozoic gas in the Ordos Basin is recognized in four enrichment models: inner-source coalbed gas and shale gas, inner-source tight sandstone gas, near-source tight gas, and far-source fault-transported gas. In the Ordos Basin, inner-source tight gas and near-source tight gas are the current focuses of exploration, and inner-source coalbed gas and shale gas and far-source gas will be important potential targets in the future.

"Source-Diagenesis-Accumulation" enrichment and accumulation regularity of marine shale gas in southern China

After the breakthrough of shale gas exploration and development in the Ordovician Wufeng Formation (Fm.) and Silurian Longmaxi Fm. of Chongqing Jiaoshiba area,Changning-Weiyuan area,etc. in Sichuan basin,a series of discovery and breakthrough were obtained by China Geological Survey in the Cambrian Niutitang Fm. and Sinian Doushantuo Fm. shale of the areas with complicated structure outside Sichuan basin. Based on the understanding of the law of shale gas enrichment in Longmaxi Fm. in the basin,this paper puts forward three elements of the formation and enrichment of shale gas,which are the “Source”,the “Diagenesis ” and the “Accumulation ”,after deeply studying the law shale gas enrichment and accumulation in Sinian-Cambrian reservoir of the complex structure area outside the basin. The “Source”means the sedimentary environment and petrological characteristics of organic shale.The “Diagenesis ”means the basin tectonic subsidence and hydrocarbon generation and expulsion process of organic matter.The “Accumulation” means the tectonic uplift and shale gas preservation. It is proposed that the Sinian-Cambrian and Ordovician-Silurian black shale series in the middle and upper Yangtze region of southern China were both formed in the deep-water shelf environment of rift trough and foreland basin respectively.The dessert intervals were formed in the strong reduction environment under transgressive system tract.The shale lithology belongs to calcium-siliceous and charcoal-siliceous respectively. Based on the summary of structural evolution in Yangtze area,the correlation of structural burial depth with shale diagenesis and the coupling evolution of organic matter with pore structure are discussed. Combining with structural styles,the preservation conditions of shale gas are discussed. Five types of shale gas reservoir control models are further described. Two types of future exploration directions,which are reverse fault syncline and paleo-uplift margin in complex structural area outside the basin,are proposed.

Reservoir characteristics and formation model of Upper Carboniferous bauxite series in eastern Ordos Basin,NW China

Through core observation,thin section identification,X-ray diffraction analysis,scanning electron microscopy,and low-temperature nitrogen adsorption and isothermal adsorption experiments,the lithology and pore characteristics of the Upper Carboniferous bauxite series in eastern Ordos Basin were analyzed to reveal the formation and evolution process of the bauxite reservoirs.A petrological nomenclature and classification scheme for bauxitic rocks based on three units(aluminum hydroxides,iron minerals and clay minerals)is proposed.It is found that bauxitic mudstone is in the form of dense massive and clastic structures,while the(clayey)bauxite is of dense massive,pisolite,oolite,porous soil and clastic structures.Both bauxitic mudstone and bauxite reservoirs develop dissolution pores,intercrystalline pores,and microfractures as the dominant gas storage space,with the porosity less than 10% and mesopores in dominance.The bauxite series in the North China Craton can be divided into five sections,i.e.,ferrilite(Shanxi-style iron ore,section A),bauxitic mudstone(section B),bauxite(section C),bauxite mudstone(debris-containing,section D)and dark mudstone-coal section(section E).The burrow/funnel filling,lenticular,layered/massive bauxite deposits occur separately in the karst platforms,gentle slopes and low-lying areas.The karst platforms and gentle slopes are conducive to surface water leaching,with strong karstification,well-developed pores,large reservoir thickness and good physical properties,but poor strata continuity.The low-lying areas have poor physical properties but relatively continuous and stable reservoirs.The gas enrichment in bauxites is jointly controlled by source rock,reservoir rock and fractures.This recognition provides geological basis for the exploration and development of natural gas in the Upper Carboniferous in the study area and similar bauxite systems.

Mesh model building and migration and accumulation simulation of 3D hydrocarbon carrier system

Migration and accumulation simulation of oil and gas in carrier systems has always been a difficult subject in the quantitative study of petroleum geology. In view of the fact that the traditional geological modeling technology can not establish the interrelation of carriers in three dimensional space, we have proposed a hybrid-dimensional mesh modeling technology consisting of body(stratum), surfaces(faults and unconformities), lines and points, which provides an important research method for the description of geometry of sand bodies, faults and unconformities, the 3 D geological modeling of complex tectonic areas, and the simulation of hydrocarbon migration and accumulation. Furthermore, we have advanced a 3 D hydrocarbon migration pathway tracking method based on the hybrid-dimensional mesh of the carrier system. The application of this technology in western Luliang Uplift of Junggar Basin shows that the technology can effectively characterize the transport effect of fault planes, unconformities and sand bodies, indicate the hydrocarbon migration pathways, simulate the process of oil accumulation, reservoir adjustment and secondary reservoir formation, predict the hydrocarbon distribution. It is found through the simulation that the areas around the paleo-oil reservoir and covered by migration pathways are favorable sites for oil and gas distribution.

Thermodynamic Modeling of Fluid-Bearing Natural Gas Inclusions for Geothermometer and Geobarometer of Overpressured Environments in Qiongdongnan Basin, South China Sea

It is a very difficult problem to directly determine fluid pressure during hydrocarbon migration and accumulation in sedimentary basins. pVt modeling of coupling hydrocarbon fluid inclusion of its coeval aqueous fluid inclusion provides a powerful tool for establishing the relationship of formation pressure evolution with time. Homogenization temperature of fluid inclusion can routinely be measured under microthermometric microscopy. Crushing technique has been employed to obtain the composition of fluid inclusions, and the commercial software VTFLINC easily and rapidly completes the construction of p t phase diagram. The minimum trapping pressure of hydrocarbon fluid inclusion would be then determined in the p t space. In this paper, three samples of YC21 1 1 and YC21 1 4 wells at YC21 1 structural closure, Qiongdongnan basin, South China Sea, were selected for the pVt modeling practice, and the formation pressure coefficient (equals to fluid pressure/hydrostatic pressure) changing trend with time has primarily been established. The modeling results also indicate that the reservoirs of Lingshui and Yacheng formations in YC21 1 structure are within a very high potential system and would have undergone a discharging of thermal fluids through top seal rupture, which depicts that there is a very high risk for natural gas exploration in this area.

Numerical study on the effect of reservoir heterogeneity and gas supply on hydrate accumulation in subsea shallow formations

Seepage-type gas hydrate accumulation in subsea shallow formations involves complicated thermohydro-solid coupling processes and matching problem between various accumulation elements.Theformation physical properties control local natural gas migration pathway and thus the final reservoircharacteristics of hydrates.In this paper,a novel mixed-flux model for gas hydrate accumulation isestablished and then used to simulate the process of methane gas migration into the shallow stratum toform a hydrate reservoir.The effects of reservoir heterogeneity and gas source conditions on the distribution of pore fluid and hydrate accumulation are examined.The simulation results show thatreservoir heterogeneity is conducive to the retention and lateral migration of CH4 in a hydrate stabilityzone.CH4 can contact more pore water to form a large hydrate reserve,but the formed hydrate is oftendispersed.Low-permeability layers enhance the trapping of CH4 and form a uniform and large hydratesaturation.Besides,gas source conditions have an important impact on the hydrate accumulation inreservoirs.Large gas flux,small pore water flux,continuous gas supply,high content of heavy components in natural gas,and numerous gas source points contribute to large amounts of hydrates generationin a certain time period.The presented work will deepen our understanding of the controls of natural gashydrate systems in subea shallow formations.

Hydrocarbon migration in fracture-cave systems of carbonate reservoirs under tectonic stresses:A modeling study

The Tahe oilfield,located in the southwest of the Akekule nosing structure,northern Tarim basin,was the most prolific oilfield targeting at the Ordovician carbonate reservoirs in China.The reservoir space was dominant with fracture-cave systems commonly induced by tectonics and karstification.Although hydrocarbon production had proceeded for two decades in the Tahe oilfiled,the control of oil and gas accumulations was still doubtful.In this work,the periodic fluid flow induced by cyclic tectonic stresses was proposed as the mechanism of hydrocarbon migration in the fracture-cave systems of carbonate reservoirs.The fracture networks formed conduits for fluid flow,and the fluid pressure in caves transmitted from stress field provided the driving force.The constitutive equations were established among stresses,fracture densities and flow velocities.Four quasi-3D geological models were constructed to simulate the flow velocities on the Ordovician surface of Akekule nosing structure in the critical tectonic stages.The simulated results supplied indicative information on oil and gas migration and accumulation in the tectonic stages.Combining with the oil and gas charge history,a conceptual model was built to reveal the multi-stage oil and gas charge and accumulation in the Ordovician of Akekule nosing structure.