Use of Atomic Absorption Spectrometry in Assessment of Biomonitor Plants for Lead,Cadmium and Copper Pollution

Eleven plant species were collected from the vicinity of lead-battery plant in the city of Gaziantep,Turkey.Lead,cadmium and copper concentrations in the soil and leaves of plants were determined by atomic absorption spectrometry.Lead,Cd and Cu concentrations in the soil samples taken from battery area were found to be in the ranges of 304～602,0.4～0.44 and 31～37 mg·kg-1,respectively.Significantly increased lead concentration up to 2 750 mg·kg-1 was found in the leaves of Eleagnus angustifolia L.plant.The lead concentrations in the other plant leaves taken from 50 m around battery factory followed the order Ailanthus altissima>Morus sp.>Juglans regia L.>Ficus carica L.>Cydonia oblonga Miller>Prunus x domestica L.The plants,Populus nigra L.,Eleagnus angustifolia L.and Salix sp.were found useful for Cd,and the plant,Eleagnus angustifolia L.for Pb,to be considered as potential biomonitor.Especially,leaves of trees and plants taken from the distance of 50 m from battery plant have relatively higher Pb concentrations.Therefore,people who and animals which live in this area and benefit from these soil and plants have vital risks.

Differences in the behavior characteristics between Daphnia magna and Japanese madaka in an on-line biomonitoring system

It is important to select suitable organisms to adapt the requirement of different environment monitoring purposes.Following our previous study,the behavioral responses of Daphnia magna and Japanese madaka （Oryzias latipes） were investigated and compared under flow-through conditions in an on-line biomonitoring system.The results showed that both D.magna and Japanese madaka had similar biological clock,but the circadian rhythms of Japanese madaka was more clearly recorded than that of D.magna.And the sensitivity of D.magna was about two orders of magnitudes higher than that of Japanese madaka in different types of toxic chemicals （dichlorovos,deltamethrin and cadmium chloride）.However,when both animals were used in an on-line biomonitoring system,the life span of D.magna was less than 7 days and Japanese madaka could last for more than one month without feeding.Therefore,D.magna was proposed to be a more sensitive bioindicator and was suitable for short term monitoring the pollution events at concentration level closing to the water quality standard,while Japanese madaka was more suitable for the long-term monitoring for accidental discharges.

Manila clam Venerupis philippinarum as a biomonitor to metal pollution

The Manila clam Venerupis philippinarum is a good biomonitor/bioindicator to marine metal pollution and is frequently used in aquatic toxicology. Two dominant pedigrees (white and zebra) of clam are distributed in the Bohai Sea; however, little attention has been paid to potential biological differences between these two pedigrees. In this study, we tested the sensitivity of both pedigrees to marine metal (cadmium and zinc) pollution biomonitoring and marine environmental toxicology. Results demonstrate significant biological differences in gills of white and zebra clams based on metabolic profiles and antioxidant enzyme activities. In addition, we found that hypotaurine, malonate and homarine were relatively high in white clam gills, while alanine, arginine, glutamate, succinate, 4-aminobutyrate, taurine and betaine were high in zebra clam gills. Zebra clam gills were also more sensitive to a mixture of Cd and Zn, as shown by antioxidant enzyme activities and metabolic profiles, but white clam gills could accumulate more Zn. Therefore, we suggest that the white pedigree can be used as a biomonitor to marine Zn pollution, whereas the zebra pedigree can be used for toxicology studies on Cd and Zn mixed pollution.

Advances of studies on biomonitoring of water pollution in China

The progress of biomonitoring on water pollution in recent years in China has been summarized in this paper.

Tracing environmental lead sources on the Ao mountain of China using lead isotopic composition and biomonitoring

Atmospheric lead （Pb） and other trace metals can transport over long distance and deposit on remote alpine ecosystems. In this work, the soil profiles, litter and dominant mosses along a large altitude were collected on Ao Mountain, Central China, to obtain the spatial distributions of Pb in these materials, decipher the possible factors controlling the distribution, and quantitatively distinguish the natural versus anthropogenic sources of Pb through the Pb isotopic tracing and biomonitoring. The results show that soil Pb concentrations （mg/kg） decreased significantly with depth, and they were markedly higher in the 0 （42.6 ＋ 2.7） and A （36.4 ＋ 2.2） horizons than in the litter （7.20 ~ 1.9） and mosses （28.o ~ 3-9）- The Pb enrichment in the surface soils （0 and A horizons）, litter and mosses existed in the relatively high altitudes, which was attributed to the influences from atmospheric wet deposition, plants, soil Dhvsicochemical DroDerties and human activitv. ThePb isotopic ratios identified the Pb sources as originating mainly from Chinese coal combustion, mining and smelting. Atmospheric Pb from southeastern, southwestern and northwestern regions could be deposited in the alpine ecosystem by long distance atmospheric transport. The anthropogenic Pb reached over 50% in the 0 and A horizons, and over 70% in the litter and mosses, which corresponded to the concentrations of 26.9, 17.7, 5.92 and 21.2 mg/kg, respectively. The results indicate that the mutual effects of climate and regional human activity could increase the Pb accumulation in remote alpine ecosystems.

Estimation of Reference Values for PFOS and PFOA in Human Biomonitoring and Relevance of Exposure among Family Members in China

The reference values of serum perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) concentrations were evaluated based on the human blood samples collected from Kashi, Xinjiang. And human serum samples of family members from Liaoning were evaluated for levels of PFOS and PFOA with the purpose to compare exposure pathways for family members. Among the 110 blood specimens from Kashi, the detection frequency of PFOS and PFOA was 93% and 6%, respectively. Reference values of serum PFOS, evaluated as the 90th percentiles of the concentrations, were determined to be 6.44 μg/L. Significant positive correlations were observed for serum levels of PFOS and PFOA among family members in Liaoning. Specially, stronger correlation between mother and offspring was observed than that between father and offspring. And stronger correlation of serum PFOS and PFOA levels was observed among fam- ily members in rural areas than those in big and small-medium cities. Difference in the association of serum PFOS and PFOA level among family members suggested that exposure in the outdoor and working environment of different oc- cupations should be evaluated. Present study provides reference values for exposure assessment in China and potential pathways of human exposure to PFOS and PFOA.

Assessment of the Potential of Honeybees (<i>Apis mellifera</i>L.) in Biomonitoring of Air Pollution by Cadmium, Lead and Vanadium

The aim of our study was to explore whether honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) could be used as a reliable alternative to the standard mechanical devices for monitoring of air quality, in particular with respect to the concentration of the heavy metals cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) and vanadium (V). We therefore tested whether the concentrations of these metals in adult honeybees and in ambient air were positively correlated, and whether differences in concentration between locations were similar for bees and air. On the basis of our measurements, conducted over a two-month period at three distinct locations in the Netherlands with each three replicate honeybee colonies placed next to mechanical monitoring devices, we concluded that a significant positive relationship between the concentrations in bees and in air could only be established for V. Also, only in the case of V, the differences between the three locations in mean concentration were similar for bees and air. Both outcomes were probably due to the relatively large range over which the concentrations of V varied, both in bees and in air, as compared to Cd and Pb. However, for V, as well as for Cd and Pb, the concentrations in ambient air were about two orders of magnitude below the established air quality standards. We therefore conclude that in the Netherlands, both variation and levels of the atmospheric concentrations of these metals are too low to establish a relationship between the concentration in bees and in air that is useful to present honeybees as an alternative to mechanical devices in monitoring of air pollution. However, in countries with larger variation and higher levels of the atmospheric concentrations of these metals, further exploration of the potential of honeybees in biomonitoring of air pollution may be worthwhile.

Comparative Study of Conocarpus erectus and Phoenix dactylifera as Plant Biomonitors of Particulate Matter Pollution in Kuwait over Three Land Use Classes

Magnetic plant biomonitoring has been proven to be an effective tool in the assessment of air quality. Kuwait presents a unique environment due to its dry desert climatic conditions and prevailing dry deposition patterns that may affect accumulation rates of magnetic mineral particles. This study evaluated two widely distributed ornamental species, buttonwood (Conocarpus erectus) and palm (Phoenix dactylifera) for their effectiveness as biomagnetic monitors over three different land use classes (urban, suburban and industrial land classes). The differences between land use classes were classified by their proximity to major pollution sources as well as population density. Leaf sampling was conducted over various heights and distances from the nearest road. Total leaf saturated isothermal magnetization (SIRM), hard isothermal magnetization (HIRM), hard isothermal magnetization percentage (HIRM%) and s-ratio have been measured. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to analyze leaf surface micromorphology. It was determined that NRM values are similar for all land use classes and species, ranging from 0.3 to 0.5 μA. Palm leaf overall magnetic concentration was identified to be higher at the industrial land use class than at the urban land use class, indicating high coercivity minerals to magnetically dominate the land use classes. Additionally, total leaf SIRM was determined to be higher at short distances of 0 - 5 meters from the vicinity of the road. The surface rugosity of palm has deep ridges and furrows with ununiform wax projections across the leaf surface, while buttonwood has a smooth wax film with low relief. Differences in leaf micromorphology in addition to plant physiology, justify species magnetic parametric variances. Palm leaf had an average SIRM value that is 120% higher than buttonwood. It has been highlighted that through the application of the magnetic parameter results to spatial distribution maps that there is an association between particulate matter (PM) and the locality of main roads and local services that may experience higher intensities of traffic.

An Assessment Study of Usefulness of Using Olive (<i>Olea europaea</i>L.) Leaves in Biomonitoring the Air Pollution near Baniyas Oil Refinery, Syria: Estimating of Total Phenolic Compounds and Lead, Copper and Manganese in Olive Leaves

The aim of this study was to estimate the total amount of phenolic compounds of olive trees leaves (Olea europaea L.) as a biomarker for the assessment of heavy metals (HMs) air pollution (Pb, Cu and Mn) in Baniyas area. Olive trees were selected as the predominant species in the study area. Samples were collected from 6 locations at different distances from the vicinity of Baniyas refinery (0.1, 0.5, 2, 4, 6, 10) Km. The control was taken from an area about 20 km from the refinery to the north-east (Al-Qardaha rural). The concentration of total phenolic compounds (TPC) during the summer was (45.6 - 70.85) mg GAE/g dw, and during winter (35.6 - 52.9) mg GAE/g dw. The concentrations of the studied HMs (Pb, Cu and Mn) in unwashed leaves during summer were (0.879 - 2.170) ppm, (0.75 - 5.21) ppm and (54.38 - 8.78) ppm respectively, whilst during the winter concentrations were (0.479 - 1.023) ppm, (1.54 - 7.29) ppm and (53.79 - 7.58) ppm respectively. The results showed significant differences in the concentration of total phenolic compounds and HMs (Pb, Cu and Mn) between sites (ANOVA), significant differences in concentrations of both total phenols and HMs (Pb and Cu) between summer and winter at all sites (t-test, p < 0.05). TPC, Pb and Mn were higher in summer in all sites than in winter. Levels of Cu were significantly higher in winter than in summer at all sites (t-test, p t-test, p < 0.05) between the concentration of total phenolic compounds and both Pb and Mn with the distance from the refinery of Baniyas. Consequently, the result of this study enhanced the usefulness of using of TPC in olive leaves as biomarker of air pollution.

Simple and Cost-Effective Biomonitoring Method for Assessing Pollution in Tropical African Rivers

Adoption rule whereby tropical African regions rely on non-tropical biomonitoring methods to assess water pollution in their rivers has been hindered by geographical incompatibility due to environmental variations between the regions that affect the capability and reliability of adopted method. Likewise, inclusion of all identified macroinvertebrate assemblages in developing the existing biomonitoring methods (i.e., South African Scoring System (SASS5) and Tanzania Riverine Scoring System (TARISS)) has made them complex taxonomically as their use requires users of greater expertise and much time during taxa identification. Such taxonomic complications and conflicting aspects regarding the adoption or modification of non-tropical biomonitoring methods in developing tropical biomonitoring methods have therefore necessitated the design of this study in order to develop simple and cost-effective tropical African biomonitoring methods, for initial application in Tanzanian rivers. Six pairwise screening criteria were employed to select orders with distinctive potential for inclusion in developing simple and cost-effective biomonitoring method. Only Ephemeroptera, Diptera, Odonata and Trichoptera (EDOT) orders met all six inclusion criteria after showing their ability to discern reference sites from monitoring sites and correlating strongly with environmental variables. Being developed using only four diverse orders with the wider range of occurrences and sensitivity to pollution, the EDOT method will minimize data variability, the need for greater expertise, cost, and time during taxa identification. The novelty of the present approach lies on the simplification of the taxonomic complication that is inherent in existing indices for four decades and modelling application to simulate sensitivity weightings for taxa with unknown sensitivity score ratings.

Biomonitoring of endosulfan toxicity in human

Chemicals are comprehensively used worldwide to control herbs,weeds,pests,and other competing agents with various growing crops.The consumption of crops grown with these chemicals(even in small quantities)can upshot into accumulation in the human body.People can accidentally inhale these hazardous chemicals if they are in an area where they were applied.These chemicals can be ingested in a human with contaminated food and drinks.Ultimately it causes various adverse effects(chronic toxicity,teratogenic,mutagenic,carcinogenic effect,reproductive,and organ toxicity)on human health.Among the pool of these chemicals used as pesticides in the environment,exposure of endosulfan to humans has a potential health risk throughout the globe.The poisoning of endosulfan is reported frequently in society,therefore,this article highlights the toxicological and other harmful properties of endosulfan to humans and emphasized its essential biomonitoring.Its quick monitoring and effective hazard evaluation are possible with multiomics technologies and some other analytical approaches.This review summarizes the introduction and mechanism of action of endosulfan along with some other toxic chemicals used in the agriculture work,the toxicity of endosulfan in human/environment,and importantly its biomonitoring(detection of chemicals and their metabolites in a biological sample)in human because biomonitoring is often considered as the most preferred method.Biomonitoring could be easily done in human samples(blood,hair,milk,and urine)with a multi-omics approach,which is a quick,reliable,and state-of-the-art technique.

Pesticide Biomonitoring in Florida Agricultural Workers

This descriptive study evaluates the blood serum levels of relevant pesticides in fern/ornamental and tomato agricultural workers in central and south Florida whose work activity is related to pesticide application or crop maintenance. The objectives of this study are to broadly evaluate pesticide absorption in agricultural workers, assess personal protective equipment (PPE) use and their potential relevance to pesticide absorption, and to evaluate the feasibility of using primary biomonitoring as a method of exposure assessment for long-term epidemiological investigations. Three rounds of sampling were conducted where 41 subjects provided serum samples analyzed for individual pesticides and responded to a survey regarding PPE use. Serum samples yielded quantifiable detections of DDE, Methiocarb, Malathion, Chlorpyrifos, and Endosulfan in select subjects. The personal protective equipment survey did not demonstrate association with positive serum samples. These results demonstrate that the evaluated workers are effectively protected against exposures known to result in acute toxicity. Biomonitoring for parent compounds and primary metabolites may have limited utility in long-term epidemiological studies to evaluate chronic toxicity where workers are exposed to a great diversity of workplace chemicals (fern/or- namental workers) compared to agricultural sectors where workplace chemical diversity is more limited (tomato workers).

Active <i>in Situ</i>Biomonitoring of Pesticide Pulses Using <i>Gammarus</i>spp. in Small Tributaries of Lake Constance

Gammarids are important members of a stream’s macrozoobenthos biocoenosis and food web. Moreover, they proved to be very sensitive towards different types of pollution. GamToxTM is a new in situ ecotoxicity test, based on survival and feeding behavior of caged gammarids for active monitoring of small streams in agricultural areas. GamToxTM has been applied in two streams with specific pollution problems in the catchment of Lake Constance. Ten organisms were exposed in 5 replicates in flow through test tubes containing one conditioned alder leaf, placed in baskets which were attached in the stream bottom and on the banks. Each week, the number of living animals was counted, the percentage of leaf skeletized estimated in semi-quantitative classes and a new elder leaf provided. Dead organisms were removed. Simultaneously, chemical analyses of pesticides and nutrients (N-compounds, P) were performed on cumulative water samples over one week. Moreover, macrozoobenthos was collected and determined according to the IBCH method, and the SPEAR index calculated. GamToxTM proved to be very sensitive to detect pesticides, copper as well as nutrients, both during acute pollution pulses and chronic exposures of up to 6 weeks. Survival turned out to be a more sensitive and less variable parameter than feeding. GamToxTM is easy to perform and directly provides a measure of ecotoxicological effects of toxicant/nutrient mixtures, which cannot be predicted by biological indices based on macrozoobenthos data such as IBCH and SPEAR-index. This study was co-financed by the InterReg IV project “?kotoxikologischer Index im Bodenseeraum”, no. 227 (2011-2013) supported by the EFRE.

Seaweeds as Biomonitoring System for Heavy Metal (HM) Accumulation and Contamination of Our Oceans

This research manuscript reports the heavy metal accumulation in four marine seaweeds sp. 1)?Caulerpa sertlatioides (Cuba);2) Caulerpa cf. brachypus;(Bali, Indonesia);3) Undaria pinnatifida (West-Donegal, Ireland);4) Ulva lactuca (Easters-Scheldt, the Netherlands). Mechanical pressure at 10 bar of fresh seaweed fronds casu quo biomass in the laboratory delivered seaweed moisture which was analyzed by Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectroscopy (ICP)-techniques for heavy-metals = [HM], (Al, As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mo, Ni, Pb & Zn). Three important observations were made: 1) The [HM] in the seaweed moisture is higher than in the surrounding seawater which directs to mechanism(s) of bio-accumulation;2) The accumulation factor [AF] is varying per metallic-cation with an overall trend for our four seaweeds and sampling locations for [HM] are: As & Co & Cu: 5000 - 10,000 μg/l;Ni & Zn: 3000 - 5000 μg/l;Cd: 2000 - 3000 μg/l;Cr: 1000 - 2000 μg/l;Al: 200 - 1000 μg/l;Mo & Pb & Fe: 0 - 200 μg/l range. 3) Seaweed moisture detected that [HM]: Pb & Zn & Fe—which all three could not be detected in the seawater—supports the view that seaweeds have a preference in their bio-accumulation mechanism for these three HM. Major conclusion is in general that “overall” for the macro-elements Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, P & S in the moisture of the four seaweed species the concentration is lower in the seaweed species, or equals the concentration, in comparison to the surrounding sea water. For the HM (Al, As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mo, Ni, Pb & Zn) the opposite is the case species and is the concentration “overall” higher in the seaweed species in comparison to the surrounding sea water. Further topics addressed include strategies of irrigation of the Sahara desert with the moisture out of seaweeds under conditions of low anthropogenic influences.

The Reference Value for Biomonitoring in Chemicals Risk Area in Thailand

The workers’biological standard value(WBSV)is generally used to assess chemicals health risks in community.It may cause the deviate biomonitoring.Therefore,this study was aimed to set the pilot reference value for exposed people to chemicals.The study was divided into three phases:the two phases for field-study method and one phase for stakeholder’s adoption.Phase I was proceeded in one industrial zone in Thailand during the years 2012-2014 to collect blood and urine samples of 402 working-age people in community accompanied with in-depth interview.The 4 heavy metals(arsenic,cadmium,lead,mercury)in blood and urine were analyzed by atomic absorption spectroscopy(AAS)analysis and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry(ICP-MS).The metabolites of 4 volatile organic compounds(VOCs,benzene,toluene,styrene,xylenes)in urine were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography(HPLC)analysis.The 8 chemicals concentrations of the volunteers’average chemicals concentration(VACC)were calculated.Phase II was proceeded during the years 2015-2016 to compare risk group identification between usage of VACC and usage of WBSV.The results were presented in mean value,standard deviation,percentage,and significant.The results showed approximately 90 percent of VACCs were lower than WBSV.The exceptional result was volunteers’average urinary arsenic concentration.It was clearly higher than WBSV.The comparative results showed the adjusted amount of risk people by VACC was higher than the adjusted amount risk people by WBSV.Phase III was proceeded in the year 2017 for stakeholder’s adoption.This study indicated that general people’s average chemicals concentration should be used as the reference value for biomonitoring and active health surveillance.

Use of Sediment and Algae for Biomonitoring the Coast of Honaïne (Far West Algerian)

Concentrations of Fe, Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd and Ni were determined in the red alga Corallina officinalis (Linnaeus, 1758), the green alga Ulva lactuca (Linnaeus, 1753) and sediment sampled in four stations of the coastline of Hona?ne (extreme Western Algeria). The abundance of metal concentrations in algae and sediment samples, is in the following order: Fe > Zn > Pb > Ni > Cu > Cd. The schematic representation by PCA reflects a strong correlation of the corallina with Cd and Pb, the ulva with Zn and Ni and sediment with Cu and Fe, in addition, to homogeneity of rehearsals in each matrix. The results of this study validate the use of these species as reliable tools for biomonitoring of metal pollution of coastal ecosystems, even if the levels of heavy metals in sediment and algae from the coastline of Hona?ne are in general, very low compared with those from other geographic areas and by guidelines.

Study of some marine bivalves as the biomonitor candidates for environmental assessment of the Jiaozhou Bay by NAA and AAS

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Human biomonitoring of novel brominated flame retardants:A review on invasive and non-invasive biomarkers

Novel brominated flame retardants(NBFRs)are a group of chemicals applied mainly as alternatives to the phased-out polybrominated diphenyl ethers(PBDEs).However,toxicological studies show that NBFRs may pose health risks similar to PBDEs.The present study reviews available information on the biomonitoring of NBFRs and their metabolites in humans through invasive and non-invasive biomarkers,as well as the toxicological effects of these chemicals both in vivo and in vitro.In general,higher concentrations of NBFRs were reported in tissues of occupationally exposed adults from NBFR production facilities,e-waste recycling facilities and inhabitants living close to these areas,compared to the general population.It is worth noting that NBFR human biomonitoring data are limited to few countries located in North America,Europe and Asia,while data from developing countries are scarce.Evidence from in vivo and in vitro toxicity studies show that several NBFRs can cause adverse health effects through various modes of action,mainly:hormone disruption,genotoxicity,endocrine disruption,and behavioural changes.Although few studies have investigated the biotransformation of NBFRs in humans,evidence suggests that the toxicity of some NBFRs may be augmented through their metabolites,as in the case of 2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoic acid(TBBA),which may exhibit higher toxicity than its parent compound 2-ethylhexyl-2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoate(EH-TBB).More research is required to assess toxicity thresholds,toxic endpoints,and tolerable intakes for various NBFRs,and their metabolites in human.Comprehensive epidemiological studies are highly recommended to further understand the risk arising from human exposure to different NBFRs,particularly in occupational settings.

Delonix regia and Casuarina equisetifolia as passive biomonitors and as bioaccumulators of atmospheric trace metals

The suitability of two common and ubiquitously distributed and exotic ornamental plant species in Nigeria-Delonix regia and Casuarina equisetifolia as biomonitors and as effective bioaccumulators of atmospheric trace metals （Cd, Pb, Zn and Cu） has been evaluated. Bark and leaf samples from these plant species were collected in June and July 2006 at five locations in Benin City. Four of the sampling sites were in areas of high traffic density and commercial activities, the fifth site is a remote site, selected to act as a control and also to provide background information for the metals. The plant samples were collected and processed using standard procedures and trace metals were determined using atomic absorption spectrometer. The bark of the plants was able to bioaccumulate the trace metals, especially Pb which originates from anthropogenic contributions in the city. The Pb range of 20.00-70.00 μg/g measured for the bark samples ofD. regia, exceeded the normal plant Pb concentration of 0.2-20.0 μg/g and most Pb data available in literature. The bark of the plants was observed to accumulate more metals compared to the leave, while D. regia was found to be slightly better than C. equisetifolia in trace metal uptake efficiency. Spatial variations in the distributions of Pb and Zn were significant （p 〈 0.05）, and the continuous use of leaded fuel in Nigeria was identified as the predominant source of Pb in the atmosphere.

Urban health and ecology： the promise of an avian biomonitoring tool

Urban-dwelling birds have the potential to serve as powerful biomonitors that reveal the impact of environmental change due to urbanization. Specifically, urban bird populations can be used to sur- vey cities for factors that may pose both public and wildlife health concerns. Here, we review evi- dence supporting the use of avian biomonitors to identify threats associated with urbanization, including bioaccumulation of toxicants and the dysregulation of behavior and physiology by related stressors. In addition, we consider the use of birds to examine how factors in the urban en- vironment can impact immunity against communicable pathogens. By studying the behavior, physiology, and ecology of urban bird populations, we can elucidate not only how avian popula- tions are responding to environmental change, but also how unintended consequences of urban- ization affect the well-being of human and non-human inhabitants.