The contribution of botanic gardens to ex situ conservation through seed banking

Target 8 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation calls for 'at least 75 per cent of threatened plant species in ex situ collections, preferably in the country of origin, and at least 20 per cent available for recovery and restoration programmes by 2020'.Botanic gardens make a significant contribution to ex situ conservation of wild species with more than a third of plant species represented in botanic gardens collections. These collections are a combination of living collection and seed banked material. Seed banking can provide an efficient form of conservation for wild plant genetic diversity.Information from Botanic Gardens Conservation International's(BGCI) databases(GardenSearch,PlantSearch, ThreatSearch and GlobalTreeSearch) has been analysed as well as survey data to report on global, regional and national seed banking trends.Information from BGCI's databases indicates that there are at least 350 seed banking botanic gardens in 74 countries. In total 56,987 taxa have been banked including more than 9000 taxa that are threatened with extinction. 6881 tree species are stored in ex situ seed bank collections. More than half(3562) of these tree species are single country endemics and represent species from more than 166 countries.This study suggests that institutions are increasingly conserving plant species via seed banking.However the majority of species in collections that have a conservation assessment are not threatened with extinction. This disjunction between species that are threatened and those conserved in seed banks needs to be addressed. Data from BGCI's databases can be used to enable prioritisation of threatened plant species for collection and conservation in seed banks. Further recommendations for botanic gardens involved in seed conservation are presented.

The future of plant conservation and the role of botanic gardens

The papers included in this special issue are mostly based on presentations made at the IABG international conference held at Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, China, November 2016, which addressed the roles that botanic gardens, both in China and elsewhere, can play in national biodiversity conservation stra- tegies, such as maintaining and conserving plant material ex situ and in contributing to the recovery of threatened plant species, reintroductions and other translocations. It also looked beyond bot- anic gardens and addressed how to work and plan much more closely with other practitioners.

Botanic gardens should lead the way to create a "Garden Earth" in the Anthropocene

The strength and expertise that botanic gardens bring to conservation are based on their detailed knowledge and understanding of the care. management, and biology of a diversity of plant species. This emphasis on the organism has led to many ex-situ and in-situ conservation programs aimed at protecting endangered species, restoring threatened populations, and establishing living plant and seed collections of endangered species. In China, the scale and pace of change in land and resource use, often leading to environmental degradation, has created a strong emphasis on improving environmental conditions. If done properly, being "green" can be a surprisingly complex issue, because it should encompass and exploit the whole of plant diversity and function. Unfortunately, 'green' often includes a small portion of this whole. Earth's rich plant diversity presents considerable opportunity but requires expertise and knowledge for stable and beneficial management. With the dawning of the Anthropocene, we should strive to live on a "Garden Earth", where we design and manage our environments, both built and natural, to create a healthy, beneficial living landscape for people and other organisms. The staff of botanic gardens worldwide and the living collections they maintain embody the best examples of sustainable, beautiful, and beneficial environments that thrive on plant diversity. This expertise should be a fundamental resource for agencies in all sectors responsible for managing and designing "green" infrastructure. Botanic gardens should actively engage and contribute to these opportunities, from large public infrastructure projects to small private conservation efforts. Here, we discuss several ongoing conservation efforts, primarily in China, and attempt to identify areas where botanic gardens could make a significant and meaningful difference.

Adapting the botanical landscape of Melbourne Gardens(Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria)in response to climate change

Botanic gardens around the world maintain collections of living plants for science, conservation, education, beauty and more. These collections change over time-in scope and content-but the predicted impacts of climate change will require a more strategic approach to the succession of plant species and their landscapes. Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria has recently published a 'Landscape Succession Strategy'for its Melbourne Gardens, a spectacular botanical landscape established in 1846. The strategy recognizes that with 1.6 million visitors each year, responsibility for a heritage-listed landscape and the need to care for a collection of 8500 plant species of conservation and scientific importance, planting and planning must take into account anticipated changes to rainfall and temperature. The trees we plant today must be suitable for the climate of the twenty-second century. Specifically, the Strategy sets out the steps needed over the next twenty years to transition the botanic garden to one resilient to the climate modelled for2090. The document includes a range of practical measures and achievable(and at times somewhat aspirational) targets. Climate analogues will be used to identify places in Australia and elsewhere with conditions today similar to those predicted for Melbourne in 2090, to help select new species for the collection. Modelling of the natural and cultivated distribution of species will be used to help select suitable growth forms to replace existing species of high value or interest. Improved understanding of temperature gradients within the botanic garden, water holding capacity of soils and plant water use behaviour is already resulting in better targeted planting and irrigation. The goal is to retain a similar diversity of species but transition the collection so that by 2036 at least 75% of the species are suitable for the climate in 2090. Over the next few years we hope to provide 100% of irrigation water from sustainable water sources, and infrastructure will be improved to adapt to predicted higher temperatures and more climatic extremes. At all times there will be a strong focus on assisting the broader community in their response to climate change.

Fifty Years of Botanical Gardens in China

The development, distribution and features of one hundred and forty botanical gardens (BGs) in China are reported and their functions on research, conservation, display and utilization of biodiversity are summarized in this paper. The contributions to the social and economic development in the early stage of Chinese BGs with the researches of economic plant (tobacco), medicinal plant (yam) and wild fruit tree resources are evaluated. The theoretical and applied achievements in recent years in seed science, plant conservation, economic plant introduction, acclimatization and breeding are also described. A general scope of living plant collections in Chinese BGs is presented and the outstanding ones, including Magnoliaceae, Zingiberaceae, Cycadaceae, medicinal plants, Actinidia and Rhododendron are particularly mentioned. With special reference to Chinese penjing art garden and silicified wood garden, the development of scientific popularization and tourism in BGs is reviewed.

The Austrian Botanic Gardens Work Group,an Example of Active Networking to Promote Small Botanic Gardens

The continuously increasing demands on botanic gardens during the last few decades have led to a huge in increase administration and an urgent need for additional specialized personnel,especially botanists,teachers,database specialists and administrative staff.Instead of meeting these requirements,many botanic gardens are faceing a severe decrease in funding and personnel.Larger gardens provide the opportunity to distribute several tasks to different employees,whereas small gardens are short staffed and often run by a single curator who has to fulfill all functions.In order to meet actual demands more easily,the Austrian botanic gardens are linked nationally via an active workgroup.This network not only allows the distribution of information but also facilitates the sharing of duties.A listserver speeds up the communication and correspondence within the workgroup,collection priorities and projects(e.g.,GSPC) are coordinated,seedbanking becomes decentralized,printed matters are shared and distributed,etc.Small gardens with only few employees can participate in projects by taking on small-ideally using with their special resources-in order not to fall behind.In addition,there is also an urgent need for international networking by means of plant and seed exchange(Index Seminum),BGCI membership,discussion groups,personal contacts and projects.Mission statements,special marketing strategies for public relations,integrating projects of other workgroup members and adapted public awareness programs are important to focus attention to small gardens and to help them keep alive.

The role of botanical gardens in scientific research, conservation, and citizen science

Plant diversity is currently being lost at an unprecedented rate, resulting in an associated decrease in ecosystem services. About a third of the world＇s vascular plant species face the threat of extinction due to a variety of devastating activities, including, over-harvesting and over exploitation, destructive agricul- tural and forestry practices, urbanization, environmental pollution, land-use changes, exotic invasive species, global climate change, and more. We therefore need to increase our efforts to develop integrative conservation approaches for plant species conservation. Botanical gardens devote their resources to the study and conservation of plants, as well as making the world＇s plant species diversity known to the public. These gardens also play a central role in meeting human needs and providing well-being. In this minireview, a framework for the integrated missions of botanical gardens, including scientific research, inJex situ conservation, plant resource utilization, and citizen science are cataloged. By reviewing the history of the development of Kunming Botanical Garden, we illustrate successful species conservation approaches （among others, projects involving Camellia, Rhododendron, Magnolia, Begonia, Alliurn, Ne- penthes, medicinal plants, ornamental plants, and Plant Species with Extreme Small Populations）, as well as citizen science, and scientific research at Kunming Botanical Garden over the past 80 years. We emphasize that Kunming Botanical Garden focuses largely on the ex situ conservation of plants from Southwest China, especially those endangered, endemic, and economically important plant species native to the Yunnan Plateau and the southern Hengduan Mountains. We also discuss the future chal- lenges and responsibilities of botanical gardens in a changing world, including： the negative effects of outbreeding and/or inbreeding depression; promoting awareness, study, and conservation of plant species diversity; accelerating global access to information about plant diversity; increasing capacity building and training activities. We hope this minireview can promote understanding of the role of botanical gardens.

Research on the Planning of Medicinal Botanical Gardens Based on the Theme of Science Popularization Education

The functions of medicinal botanical gardens are introduced firstly,and then the application status and planning principles of medicinal botanical gardens based on the theme of science popularization education are analyzed.Moreover,a typical application case is analyzed and summarized.Constructing a scientific medicinal botanical garden is conducive to increasing people's understanding of medicinal plants,and also meets the requirements of current national policies,thereby generating greater economic and social benefits.

Boosting the Development of CAS Botanical Gardens

CAS is to initiate a 150-millionyuan (about US $18 million) project to boost the development of its network of botanical gardens throughout the country. ……

CAS Botanical Gardens

China is a large country with rich plant resources. Because of its unique geographical position, on its 9,600,000 km2 of territory are found about 30,000 species of higher plants, accounting for 10% of the world's flora species and ranking the country third in the world in abundance of plant species.

Biological and cultural diversity in the context of botanic garden conservation strategies

Impacts of global climate change, habitat loss, and other environmental changes on the world's biota and peoples continue to increase, especially on islands and in high elevation areas. Just as floristic diversity is affected by environmental change, so too are cultural and linguistic diversity. Of the approximately 7000 extant languages in the world, fully 50% are considered to be at risk of extinction, which is considerably higher than most estimates of extinction risks to plants and animals. To maintain the integrity of plant life, it is not enough for botanic gardens to consider solely the effects of environmental change on plants within the context of major conservation strategies such as the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation and the Convention on Biological Diversity. Rather, botanic gardens should actively engage in understanding and communicating the broader impacts of environmental change to biological and cultural diversity.

Assessing the invasion risk of botanical garden's exotic threatened collections to adjacent mountain forests: A case study of Cibodas Botanical Garden

A primary objective of botanical gardens is to conserve threatened plant species from different regions and countries.However,such ex-situ conservation practices for exotic plant species may pose a significant plant invasion risks.In this study,we predict the naturalization probability of exotic threatened plant species of Cibodas Botanical Garden(CBG) collections based on leaf trait(specific leaf area,SLA) or as a function of invasion risk assessment scoring system(Tropical Weed Risk Assessment Protocol,TWRAP).We found that SLA and TWRAP were positively correlated with naturalization probability.The TWRAP model produced higher predictive probabilities with larger uncertainty compared to SLA model.Parmentiera cereifera and Burretiodendron hsienmu are two species that have highest naturalization probability based on SLA model.Chamaedorea oblongata has the highest naturalization probability based on TWRAP model.From practical and management point of view,we recommend the simultaneous use of SLA-based and TWRAP-based invasive species risk assessment to estimate the naturalization risk of exotic threatened collections of botanical gardens to adjacent mountain forests.Finally,given the important conservation value of threatened exotic collection of botanical garden,we need to be aware with the invasion risks of these species.The threatened condition of a plant species is not only caused by its natural characteristics but also may be caused(in fact mostly confounding with) by external disturbance either natural catastrophic or human related activities.Thus,a threatened species may not necessarily a noninvasive species outside their natural distribution ranges.

Botanic Garden Collections—An Under-Utilised Resource

Botanic gardens and arboreta around the world are repositories of diverse collections of useful plants in their gardens and seed banks. However, the crop and forestry communities often overlook these collections, and so they are an underutilised resource. For example, in analysis of the ex situ conservation status of 6,941 socio-economically important plant taxa using data from forestry and crop collections, but omitted collections in botanic gardens and arboreta. In this paper, we compared the socio-economically important taxa identified by Khoury et al. from GRIN-Global World Economic Plants (WEP) with data on living and seed collections held in botanic garden and arboreta, as recorded in BGCI’s global PlantSearch and ThreatSearch datasets. This analysis produced an assessment of the proportion of these taxa that are found in botanic gardens and arboreta, the number of gardens or arboreta they are found in and what potential they have to contribute to research, conservation and sustainable use. We also compared the species conservation comprehensiveness assessments carried out by Khoury et al. with the threatened status of those species, according to the IUCN Red List and other threat assessment methodologies in order to ascertain whether threatened, useful species are well-conserved in botanic gardens. At least 6017 of the 6941 socio-economically important WEP taxa (86.7%) were currently found in the living and seed collections of botanic gardens and arboreta with 1456 taxa (21%) held in >40 collections. Khoury et al. suggested that 6748 of the WEP taxa are of either medium or high conservation priority. However, our analysis suggested that just 1153 taxa have been assessed as threatened at a national or international level. We concluded that the botanic garden/arboretum community can contribute significantly to plant conservation and sustainable development, including data and material from many collections of socio-economically important taxa that are not present in the crop and forestry communities. We examined the reasons why botanic garden/arboreta collections are currently under-utilised and make recommendations for increasing their visibility and use.

The Localization of UK Experience in Environmental Education in Fairy Lake Botanical Garden, Shenzhen, China

In China, the environmental education （EE） is a brief new but popular topic in recent several years as a method to cope with the gap between nature and children. EE was started in UK with a long-term development and the useful experience can be utilized for the Chinese EE development. As a case study, the experiences of UK organizations were summarized and applied in the EE system in Fairy Lake Botanical Garden in Shenzhen （SZBG）, China. The localization of UK’s experience in the EE development in SZBG in terms of EE program, course content and resource was summarized in this paper. There are also discussions for the future update of EE in SZBG and for other local organizations like botanical gardens, wetland parks, nature reserve etc.

Seed Germination and Vegetative Propagation of Promising Decorative Lonicera tatarica L. (Caprifoliaceae Juss.), Introduced into the Tashkent Botanical Garden (Uzbekistan)

Seed germination (in laboratory and field conditions) and vegetative reproduction (by cuttings) of a promising decorative species—Lonicera tatarica L. (Caprifoliaceae Juss.) was studied for the first time in the conditions of introduction of the Tashkent Botanical Garden of Uzbekistan. Thus, the optimal temperature for germination of L. tatarica seeds in laboratory conditions is +20°C + 22°C, at which germination was 73%. The germination rate of seeds sown in autumn in the field was 62%, and the germination rate of seeds sown in spring was 71%. It was noted that in greenhouse conditions at an air temperature of 20°C - 22°C and a relative humidity of 49% - 53%, the rootability of cuttings was 75%. It was revealed that the studied species adapted well to the conditions of introduction. Taking into account the effectiveness of vegetative reproduction of L. tatarica, it can be recommended for improving the aesthetic condition and landscaping of cities, landscaping and landscape design.

The Conservational Role of Qur’anic Botanic Garden of Medicinal,Desert and Tropical Plants in Qatar

The scientific program of the Qur’anic Botanic Garden(QBG)is concerning with agricultural,conservational,biotechnology and medicinal fields.The QBG not only focusing on the study of the plants mentioned in the Holy Qur’an and Hadith,but also the endogenous plants of the Flora of Qatar and potential medicinal plants of the Arabic world.In the Hadith,the Prophet’s sayings,there are more than 20 plants mentioned in the occasions of cosmetic or medicinal uses.The garden is conserving special kinds of plants collected from different parts of the world to be restored at one place for preservation and study purposes.Both ex-situ and in-situ conservational programs are designed to collect and conserve plants inside and outside their natural habitats.The QBG plant nursery,herbarium,and seeds units are main components of the QBG that build to produce and preserve the plants at QBG.More than 59 plant spices are preserved from three different geographical zones:desert,Mediterranean and tropical zones.The Garden also is collecting and preserving those traditional entities from the entire world in order to be exhibited in the Botanic Museum of the QBG.By following the Islamic principles of conservation,the QBG highlights these conservational ethics and explains them for all people.Garden emphasizes multi-activities,campaigns,events,fairs and exhibitions for the students and public in order to encourage people to preserve the natural resources through an ordinately oriented educational program which is based on plant conservation.Another side of QBG’s conservation roles is the conservation based on community engagement and education.QBG’s education programs,horticulture and conservation programs,dissemination activities,and partnerships are fundamental in ensuring the transfer of this knowledge to the global community.

A Case Study of an in Situ Botanical Garden in Zagori, Greece

Between 1998 and 2002, a project for the protection of the natural environment was applied, in the framework of the EU Initiative ＂L.I.F.E.＂, in Zagori, a mountainous region in Northwestern Greece with rich natural and human environment. One of the actions that took place as part of the above project was the creation of an in situ botanical garden in order to raise public awareness of the environment and the flora of the region. During the operation of the garden, the visitors answered questions related to their satisfaction or dissatisfaction of their visit. They also made suggestions for the improving of the garden. According to the number of the visitors and the analysis of the questionnaires, the operation of the garden was satisfactory. The in situ botanical garden proved useful not only for environmental awareness and education, but also for local economy. Two years since its creation, the garden eventually stopped operating. The main reason was lucky of funding. Based on the experience gained, it is suggested that the garden should be re-created under a new approach. Regions, such as Zagori, whose economy is based on environmental tourism, would benefit greatly from such structures. Moreover, in situ botanical gardens can play an important role in the protection of Greece＇s rich flora.

Preliminary Study on Prevention and Control against Pests in Actinidia Plants in Lushan Botanical Garden of China

Survey on pests in Actinidia plants in Lushan botanical garden of China found that the insects causing damage on Actinidia plants mainly were grasshop- pers, scarabs, stinkbugs, leafhoppers, larvae of butterflies and moths, leaf milers and borers, belonging to 50 species and 23 families. According to the regularity of their reproduction and development, as well as the characteristics of pest d mnages on plants, chemical agents were applied in flower bud expansion stage and early fruit setting stage of Actinidia plants. The results showed that rational application of chemical agents before and after flowering stage could effectively control largescale occurrence of pests.

Vegetative Reproduction through Green Cuttings of the Introduced Form <i>Weigela florida</i>f. “<i>Bristol ruby</i>” (Caprifoliaceae) in the Conditions of the Tashkent Botanical Garden (Uzbekistan)

For the first time, work was carried out on the vegetative reproduction of Weigela florida f. “Bristol Rubru” (Caprifoliaceae) was introduced into the Tashkent Botanical Garden (Uzbekistan) through green branches. As a result of the research conducted, it was noted that the vegetative reproduction possibilities of the “Bristol Ruby” form of Weigela florida were high. When placed on stimulants of two types (kornevin, heteroauxin), it became known that kornevin stimulants are effective in taking root. It was found that the effective way to multiply this form by green branches in a vegetative way—when placed on the stimulator of kornevin from the middle part of the rod, the indicators of root extraction of the cuttings were 93.3%, which is more effective than other options. When vegetative reproduction of this decorative form, it is recommended that the seedlings come to the standard state in 3 - 4 years and the root extraction indicators are high—this is its use as the second row shrubs in the case of growing on strongly saline soils in the conditions of Uzbekistan. The cultivation of green cuttings of the form in the fog showed that they are more effective than in the open ground.

Assessing Growth Parameters from Culm Cuttings of Bambusa vulgaris at the University of Dschang Botanic Garden, West Region of Cameroon: Implications for the Bamboo Resource Base and Rural Livelihoods

Dwindling supplies of bamboo resources and the increase in the demand for bamboo have led to the need for better propagation techniques. This is the only way to ensure the sustainability of the bamboo resource base and improve livelihoods. Thus, this study was carried out to examine the different growth parameters of culm cuttings of Bambusa vulgaris in propagation beds with a substrate consisting of dark soil, manure (compost) and sand in a ratio of 1:1:1. Data on different growth parameters was collected on a daily basis over a three week period and analyzed using appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics. It was found that the different growth parameters (diameter, height, leaves and sheaths) of culm cuttings of B. vulgaris evolved in like manner in three propagation beds. Descriptive statistics for growth parameters of culm cuttings of B. vulgaris showed little or no differences across three shelter/propagation beds (shelter bed 1, shelter bed 2 and shelter bed 3) with 1.4675 ± 1.6172 cm, 93 ± 112 cm, 22 ± 30 leaves, and 4 ± 6 sheaths being the mean diameter, height, number of leaves and number of sheaths for all three propagation beds, respectively. ANOVA test showed no statistically significant variation (p > 0.05) between growth parameters of culm cuttings of B. vulgaris across the three propagation beds, implying that the different growth parameters were relatively similar. Pearson correlation showed the existence of direct and inverse relationships between the different growth parameters of culm cuttings of bamboo. The existence of these direct and inverse relationships could be attributed to the rapid growth rate of bamboo, the substrate used, and the species of bamboo used (B. vulgaris). The study recommends more large-scale propagation projects of this bamboo species in order to ensure the sustainability of the bamboo resource base and improve livelihoods of bamboo dependent rural communities.