Unveiling the Threat: Case Reports of Extra-Pulmonary Tuberculosis among Sanctuary Chimpanzees

Primate sanctuaries across Africa play a pivotal role in the rescue and rehabilitation of confiscated and rescued wild primates, many of whom have had extensive contact with humans prior to their arrival and throughout the rehabilitation process, heightening the risk of disease transmission. While tuberculosis is not naturally occurring in free-living chimpanzees, it has been extensively observed in captive primates that have been in close proximity to humans or other captive primates infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This case report delves into an outbreak of extra-pulmonary tuberculosis among juvenile chimpanzees within a sanctuary, detailing the associated diagnostic challenges and treatment approaches. The five cases had close contact with a caregiver infected with tuberculosis, subsequently transmitting the infection to other in-contact chimpanzees. Prolonged treatment, employing the human protocol of quadri-therapy (rifampicin, isoniazid, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol), followed by bi-therapy (rifampicin and isoniazid), resulted in complete resolution for all five cases. These cases underscore the critical importance of maintaining high levels of biosecurity, implementing effective quarantine measures, and adhering to strict hygiene practices when working with non-human primates.

Immune mechanisms of vaccine induced protection against chronic hepatitis C virus infection in chimpanzees

Hepatitis C virus(HCV) infection is characterized by a high propensity for development of life-long viral persistence. An estimated 170 million people suffer from chronic hepatitis caused by HCV. Currently,there is no approved prophylactic HCV vaccine available.With the near disappearance of the most relevant animal model for HCV,the chimpanzee,we review the progression that has been made regarding prophylactic vaccine development against HCV. We describe the results of the individual vaccine evaluation experiments in chimpanzees,in relation to what has been observed in humans. The results of the different studies indicate that partial protection against infection can be achieved,but a clear correlate of protection has thus far not yet been defined.

Disposition and Metabolism of 1 -Nitropropane in Rats and Chimpanzees

The metabolic fate of 1 -nitropropane (1-NP) has not been previously reported. In this study male rats and chimpanzees were given single doses of 40 mg/kg ip and 5 mg/kg iv 1-[1-^(14)C]NP, respectively. The quantitative extent of urinary and fecal elimination was similar in both species. The rats excreted 16.5% ofthedosein urine and 1.7% in feces. For chimpanzees the respective values were 14.8 and 1.2%. Experiments with rats demonstrated that the major route of elimination was by exhalation. With a total elimination via the lungs of 72.6%, rats expired 10.3% of the dose as unchanged 1-NP. Five polar metabolites were isolated from the urine of chimpanzees. The two major metabolites were identified as 3-hydroxypropionic acid and 7V-methyl-N-2-(methylsulfinyl)ethylpropionic acid amide (NMPA). Both substances were also excreted in rat urine. The two identified metabolites indicate that 1-NP was degraded to propionic acid, part of which was modified to 3-hydroxypropionic acid or NMPA. A hypothetical pathway for the biochemical generation of NMPA is suggested.(c)1989 Academic Press, Inc.

Fruit Phenology of Tree Species and Chimpanzees’ Choice of Consumption in Kalinzu Forest Reserve, Uganda

One hundred and eighteen (118) tree species were identified, among which 58 species produced fruit within the two-year study. Fruit of only 26.3% of the latter is eaten by chimpanzees. The consumption of each of these fruits was generally low, with only two species constituting more than 25% consumption. Only about 1.7% of woody biomass is relied upon by chimpanzees in Kalinzu for food. The major tree species in chimpanzee diet monitored showed that fruit production varies monthly and seasonally. Apart from Musanga leo-errerae and Ficus spp. whose fruiting was consistent throughout the year, general fruit phenology was positively correlated with rainfall. Only three species namely: Craterispermum laurinum, Aframomum angustifolium and Beilschmiedia ugandensis produced fruit in the dry seasons. Correlation between fruit availability and consumption was significantly positive for only one species, Landlophia dawei. This indicated that frugivory of chimpanzees in Kalinzu was not opportunistic;they search for what they like to eat. Chimpanzees would have to range furthest in periods of scarcity and asynchronous fruiting hence a lot of energy expenditure in the food search alone. Therefore, diversity in fruit phenology is important for chimpanzees’ energy conservation, health and survival. Selective logging and other selective human activities that involve cutting down trees that are palatable would in future affect the food diversity and consequently the health of frugivores if not done sustainably. Since patterns of fruit phenology are also linked to patterns of rainfall, changes in the former can assist in predicting the influence of climate change on food availability for big frugivores like chimpanzees.

Fruits’ Nutrient Composition and Their Influence on Consumption by Chimpanzees in Kalinzu Forest, South Western Uganda

This study determined the influence of nutritional fruit content on their consumption by chimpanzees in Kalinzu forest. Fruits consumption frequencies were obtained from analysis of chimpanzee faecal samples picked over a period of two years. Fruit content was analyzed using freeze dried fresh samples using standard techniques. Musanga leo-errerae (76.14%), Ficus spp (66.05%) and (18.68%) were the most commonly eaten fruits of all faecal samples (N = 2683). Generally, fruit consumption increased for fruits with total phenols and tannins below 1% per gram except for Musanga leo-errerae, Uvariopsis congoensis and Aframomum angustifolium. Multiple regression revealed that of the 15 nutrient parameters investigated, only calcium, tannins, crude fat, protein and energy content of the fruits that constitute the major food components for basic animal body needs and functioning of energy, body building and a healthy skeleton significantly predicted 76.86% of consumption (R2 = 76.86%;P = 0.019). However, the fact that some of the most eaten fruits like Aframomum angustifolium and Musanga leo-errerae were recorded to have the highest amounts in tannins shows that there must be additional factors into play. Other than fruit availability, consideration of effect of fruit size and handling within the existing models of chimpanzees’ diet could hence enhance further the understanding of fruit consumption.

Evaluation of Chimpanzee Language Experiments of R.A.Gardner and B.T.Gardner,Terrace,and Rumbaugh and Savage-Rumbaugh

Can we teach a chimpanzee a language?Different researchers have different opinions.R.A.Gardner and B.T.Gardner,Terrace,and Rumbaugh and Savage-Rumbaugh raised chimpanzees Washoe,NeamChimsky(Nim),and Lana respectively and tried to teach a language to them.R.A.Gardner and B.T.Gardner’s study is well designed by choosing and teaching Washoe America Sign Language(ASL).However,ASL is only used in a small number of people;therefore,even the chimp can master it,the result is not representative enough to include all major human languages.Also,using limitation as a training method is successful and a surprising result is obtained:Washoe was claimed to perform delayed imitation.One result claimed by R.A.Gardner and B.T.Gardner is that Washoe showed motive for communication,which is not convincing.However,other results of Washoe’s abilities of“vocabulary”,“differentiation”,and“transfer”seem convincing because they could be explained by its understanding that the sign can represent meanings.The methodology of Terrace’s study seems more rigorous.The aim of his study is to explore whether apes can create sentences by analysing Nim’s combinations of signs and their differences with that of children.The analysis of results of sign combinations is not convincing.However,what is convincing is that the results show huge differences between Nim’s and children’s utterances.In terms of methodology,the training methods in Rumbaugh’s study seem to have no big difference from R.A.Gardner and B.T.Gardner’s and Terrace’s.In terms of the results,Lana was claimed to perform communication with companions.Another result of the experiment is that Lana was claimed to master the ability to use names.

Captive chimpanzee shares food with baboons

Food sharing is a prosocial behavior consisting of the unresisted transfer of monopolizable food from a possessor to another individual(Feistner and McGrew 1989;Stevens and Gilby 2004).Despite the cost for donors(i.e.,loss of the food),intraspecifc food sharing occurs in various insects,fsh,birds,and aquatic,terrestrial,and arboreal mammals(Liévin‐Bazin et al.2019;Carter et al.2020).By far,most food sharing is intraspecifc,and takes place while possessors are in the process of eating.Here,we describe the remarkable case of a captive chimpanzee,Pan troglodytes,regularly dispensing food to another primate species(baboons,Papio hamadryas)in a neighboring enclosure.We discuss likely causes and functions of this interspecifc altruistic act.Observations were made in Xi’an Qinling Wildlife Park,Shaanxi Province,China(34°02ʹ56.22″N,108°51ʹ48.60″E),where two adult chimpanzees and a group of around 40-50 baboons lived in adjacent enclosures.The female chimpanzee(AiAi)was the elderly mother of the male(DuoDuo,or DD).At feeding times,AiAi usually ate near the door to the chimpanzees’indoor area,and she almost never interacted with the baboon group.The baboon group consisted of two one-male units.We recorded behaviors using focal-animal sampling(for information about subjects and methods,see Supplementary Materials).

Social and ecological complexity is associated with gestural repertoire size of wild chimpanzees

Increasing our understanding of primate gestural communication can provide new insights into language evolution.A key question in primate communication is the association between the social relationships of primates and their repertoire of gestures.Such analyses can reveal how primates use their repertoire of gestural communication to maintain their networks of family and friends,much as humans use language to maintain their social networks.In this study we examined the association between the repertoire of gestures(overall,manual and bodily gestures,and gestures of different modalities)and social bonds(presence of reciprocated grooming),coordinated behaviors(travel,resting,co-feeding),and the complexity of ecology(e.g.noise,illumination)and sociality(party size,audience),in wild East African chimpanzees(Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii).A larger repertoire size of manual,visual gestures was associated with the presence of a relationship based on reciprocated grooming and increases in social complexity.A smaller repertoire of manual tactile gestures occurred when the relationship was based on reciprocated grooming.A smaller repertoire of bodily gestures occurred between partners who jointly traveled for longer.Whereas gesture repertoire size was associated with social complexity,complex ecology also influenced repertoire size.The evolution of a large repertoire of manual,visual gestures may have been a key factor that enabled larger social groups to emerge during evolution.Thus,the evolution of the larger brains in hominins may have co-occurred with an increase in the cognitive complexity underpinning gestural communication and this,in turn,may have enabled hominins to live in more complex social groups.

Recombinant chimpanzee adenovirus vector vaccine expressing the spike protein provides effective and lasting protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection in mice

SARS-CoV-2 infection is a global public health threat.Vaccines are considered amongst the most important tools to control the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.As expected,deaths from SARS-CoV-2 infection have dropped dramatically with widespread vaccination.However,there are concerns over the duration of vaccine-induced protection,as well as their effectiveness against emerging variants of concern.Here,we constructed a recombinant chimpanzee adenovirus vectored vaccine expressing the full-length spike of SARS-CoV-2(Ad C68-S).Rapid and high levels of humoral and cellular immune responses were observed after immunization of C57BL/6J mice with one or two doses of Ad C68-S.Notably,neutralizing antibodies were observed up to at least six months after vaccination,without substantial decline.Single or double doses Ad C68-S immunization resulted in lower viral loads in lungs of mice against SARS-CoV-2 challenge both in the short term(21 days)and long-term(6 months).Histopathological examination of Ad C68-S immunized mice lungs showed mild histological abnormalities after SARS-CoV-2 infection.Taken together,this study demonstrates the efficacy and durability of the Ad C68-S vaccine and constitutes a promising candidate for clinical evaluation.

Comparing children＇s Homo sapiens and chimpanzees＇ Pan troglodytes quantity judgments of sequentially presented sets of items

We presented a quantity judgment task that involved comparing two sequentially presented sets of items to preschoolers and chimpanzees using nearly identical procedures that excluded verbal instructions to children. Trial difficulty in this task reflected the ratio difference between sets of discrete items where larger ratios （e.g., 0.80 as from comparing 4 to 5） were more difficult than smaller ones （e.g., 0.50 as from comparing 4 to 8）. Children also completed verbal-based tasks probing the relationskip between counting proficiency and performance on the quantity judgment task of sequentially presented identical sized items. Both species＇ performance was best when ratios between comparison sets were small regardless of set size in all types of tasks. Generally, chimpanzees and older children performed better than younger children except at larger ratios. Children＇s counting proficiency was not related to success in choosing the larger of two quantities of identical-sized items. These results indicate that chimpanzees and children share an approximate number sense that is reflected through analog magnitude estimation when comparing quantities [Current Zoology 57 （4）： 419-428, 2011].

Comprehension of functional support by enculturated chimpanzees Pan troglodytes

Studies of causal understanding of tool relationships in captive chimpanzees have yielded disparate findings, particularly those reported by Povinelli ＆ colleagues （2000） for tool tasks by laboratory chimpanzees. The present set of experiments tested nine enculturated chimpanzees on three versions of a support task, as described by Povinelli （2000）, during which food re- wards were presented in different experimental configurations. In Experiment 1, stimulus pairs included a choice between a cloth with a reward on the upper right comer or with a second reward off the cloth, adjacent to a comer, with the second pair comprised of a cloth with food on the upper right comer, and a second cloth with the reward on the substrate, partially covered. All subjects were successful with both test conditions in Experiment 1. In a second study, the experimental choices included one of two possi- ble correct options, paired with one of three incorrect options, with the three incorrect choices all involving varying degrees of perceptual containment. All nine chimpanzees scored significantly above chance across all six conditions. In Experiment 3, four unique conditions were presented, combining one of two possible correct choices with one of two incorrect choices. Six of the subjects scored significantly above chance across the four conditions, and group performance on individual conditions was also significant. Superior performance was demonstrated by female subjects in Experiment 3, similar to sex differences in tool use previously reported for wild chimpanzees and some tool tasks in captive chimpanzees. The present results for Experiments 2 ＆ 3 were significantly differed from those reported by Povinelli et al. （2000） for laboratory-born, peer-reared chimpanzees. One contribution towards the dramatic differences between the two study populations may be the significant rearing and housing differences of the chimpanzee groups. One explanation is that under conditions of enculturation, rich social interactions with humans and conspecifics, as well as active exploration of artifacts, materials, and other aspects of their physical environment had a significant impact on the animals＇ ability to recognize the support relationships among the stimulus choices. Overall, the present findings provide strong support for the hypothesis that our chimpanzee subjects based their responses on an understanding of functional support which represented one facet of their folk physics repertoire [Current Zoology 57 （4）： 429-440, 2011].

Future of liver transplantation: Non-human primates for patient-specific organs from induced pluripotent stem cells

Strategies to fill the huge gap in supply versus demand of human organs include bioartificial organs, growing humanized organs in animals, cell therapy, and implantable bioengineered constructs. Reproducing the complex relations between different cell types, generation of adequate vasculature, and immunological complications are road blocks in generation of bioengineered organs, while immunological complications limit the use of humanized organs produced in animals. Recent developments in induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) biology offer a possibility of generating human, patient-specific organs in non-human primates (NHP) using patient-derived iPSC and NHP-derived iPSC lacking the critical developmental genes for the organ of interest complementing a NHP tetraploid embryo. The organ derived in this way will have the same human leukocyte antigen (HLA) profile as the patient. This approach can be curative in genetic disorders as this offers the possibility of gene manipulation and correction of the patient's genome at the iPSC stage before tetraploid complementation. The process of generation of patient-specific organs such as the liver in this way has the great advantage of making use of the natural signaling cascades in the natural milieu probably resulting in organs of great quality for transplantation. However, the inexorable scientific developments in this direction involve several social issues and hence we need to educate and prepare society in advance to accept the revolutionary consequences, good, bad and ugly.

Hominin Evolution Was Caused by Introgression from Gorilla

The discovery of Paranthropus deyiremeda in 3.3 - 3.5 million-year-old fossil sites in Afar, together with 30% of the gorilla genome showing lineage sorting between humans and chimpanzees, and a NUMT (“nuclear mitochondrial DNA segment”) on chromosome 5 that is shared by both gorillas, humans and chimpanzees, and shown to have diverged at the time of the Pan-Homo split rather than the Gorilla/Pan-Homo split, provides conclusive evidence that introgression from the gorilla lineage caused the Pan-Homo split, and the speciation of both the Australopithecus lineage and the Paranthropus lineage.

Imperatives of Health Psychologist in the Control and Management of HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa

The paper studied the imperatives of health psychologists in the control and management of HIV/ AIDS. HIV/AIDS is a relatively new disease, but has caused more deaths than any other disease in human history, and there is no known cure yet. Even though, HIV/AIDS is a death sentence, experts agreed that early detection, and early commencement of treatment may prolong the life of the patients, and that early detection may prevent or reduce the transmission of the virus. Early detection, commencement of treatment, and compliance with medical advice are the responsibilities of the health psychologist. This paper therefore, concludes that health psychologist is indispensable in effective control, and management of HIV/AIDS, and so recommends that awareness be created on the roles of health psychologists in this regard, through health education.

Primate phylogeny:molecular evidence for a pongid clade excluding humans and a prosimian clade containing tarsiers

Unbiased readings of fossils are well known to contradict some of the popular molecular groupings among primates,particularly with regard to great apes and tarsiers.The molecular methodologies today are however flawed as they are based on a mistaken theoretical interpretation of the genetic equidistance phenomenon that originally started the field.An improved molecular method the 'slow clock' was here developed based on the Maximum Genetic Diversity hypothesis,a more complete account of the unified changes in genotypes and phenotypes.The method makes use of only slow evolving sequences and requires no uncertain assumptions or mathematical corrections and hence is able to give definitive results.The findings indicate that humans are genetically more distant to orangutans than African apes are and separated from the pongid clade ～17.6 million years ago.Also,tarsiers are genetically closer to lorises than simian primates are.Finally,the fossil times for the radiation of mammals at the K/T boundary and for the Eutheria-Metatheria split in the Early Cretaceous were independently confirmed from molecular dating calibrated using the fossil split times of gorilla-orangutan,mouse-rat,and opossum-kangaroo.Therefore,the re-established primate phylogeny indicates a remarkable unity between molecules and fossils.

A comparison of fecal sampling and direct feeding observations for quantifying the diet of a frugivorous primate

Both observational and indirect evidence are widely used to determine the diets of wild animals.Direct observations are often assumed to provide the most comprehensive reflection of diet,but many wild animals are logistically challenging to observe.Despite the regular use of observa-tional and indirect methods for inferring diet in wild animals,they have rarely been compared in detail for the same study population.Over 12 months this study assessed the congruence of methods in estimating the diet of a montane community of eastern chimpanzees Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii in Nyungwe National Park,Rwanda using observational scan samples and macro-scopic fecal inspection.The assessment of the number of food species consumed each month was comparable between methods,but the estimation of the composition of items in the diet differed significantly.Most notably,the fecal samples significantly underestimated the consumption of flowers,and certain fruit species,which based on direct behavioral observations were seasonally consumed at very high rates.Conversely,direct observations underestimated the consumption of leaves and pith in comparison to results present in the fecal samples.These results suggest that combining methods where possible is most useful for accurate monitoring of dietary trends,particularly for species that experience significant seasonal shifts in their diet.

Technology advancing the study of animalcognition： using virtual reality to presentvirtually simulated environments to investigatenonhuman primate spatial cognition

Virtual simulated environments provide multiple ways of testing cognitive function and evaluatingproblem solving with humans （e.g., Woollett et al. 2009）. The use of such interactive technologyhas increasingly become an essential part of modern life （e.g., autonomously driving vehicles, glo-bal positioning systems （GPS）, and touchscreen computers; Chinn and Fairlie 2007; Brown 2011）.While many nonhuman animals have their own forms of technology, such as chimpanzees whocreate and use tools, in captive animal environments the opportunity to actively participate withinteractive technology is not often made available. Exceptions can be found in some state-of-the-art zoos and laboratory facilities （e.g., Mallavarapu and Kuhar 2005）. When interactive technologyis available, captive animals often selectively choose to engage with it. This enhances the animal＇ssense of control over their immediate surroundings （e.g., Clay et al. 2011; Ackerman 2012）. Suchself-efficacy may help to fulfill basic requirements in a species＇ daily activities using problem solv-ing that can involve foraging and other goal-oriented behaviors. It also assists in fulfilling thestrong underlying motivation for contrafreeloading and exploration expressed behaviorally bymany species in captivity （Young 1999）. Moreover, being able to present nonhuman primates vir-tual reality environments under experimental conditions provides the opportunity to gain insightinto their navigational abilities and spatial cognition. It allows for insight into the generation andapplication of internal mental representations of landmarks and environments under multiple con-ditions （e.g., small- and large-scale space） and subsequent spatial behavior. This paper reviewsmethods using virtual reality developed to investigate the spatial cognitive abilities of nonhumanprimates, and great apes in particular, in comparison with that of humans of multiple age groups.We make recommendations about training, best practices, and also pitfalls to avoid.

Taste responsiveness to two steviol glycosides in three species of nonhuman primates

Primates have been found to differ widely in their taste perception and studies suggest that a coevolution between plant species bearing a certain taste substance and primate species feeding on these plants may contribute to such between-species differences. Considering that only platyrrhine primates, but not catarrhine or prosimian primates, share an evolutionary history with the neotrop- ical plant Stevia rebaudiana, we assessed whether members of these three primate taxa differ in their ability to perceive and/or in their sensitivity to its two quantitatively predominant sweet- tasting substances. We found that not only neotropical black-handed spider monkeys, but also paleotropical black-and-white ruffed lemurs and Western chimpanzees are clearly able to perceive stevioside and rebaudioside A. Using a two-bottle preference test of short duration, we found that Ateles geoffroyi preferred concentrations as low as 0.05 mM stevioside and 0.01 mM rebaudioside A over tap water. Taste preference thresholds of Pan troglodytes were similar to those of the spider monkeys, with 0.05 mM for stevioside and 0.03 mM for rebaudioside A, whereas Varecia variegata was slightly less sensitive with a threshold value of 0.1 mM for both substances. Thus, all three primate species are, similar to human subjects, clearly more sensitive to both steviol glycosides compared to sucrose. Only the spider monkeys displayed concentration-response curves with both stevioside and rebaudioside A which can best be described as an inverted U-shaped function sug- gesting that Ateles geoffroyi, similar to human subjects, may perceive a bitter side taste at higher concentrations of these substances. Taken together, the results of the present study do not support the notion that a co-evolution between plant and primate species may account for between-species differences in taste perception of steviol glycosides.