Evolution of Climate Policy in the UK before and after Brexit from the Perspective of Normative Power Theory and Its Enlightenment to China

As the host country of the 26 th United Nations Climate Conference,the United Kingdom(UK)fully carried out climate diplomacy at the conference,and intended to promote the green concept in the international community through diplomatic means,which shows its greater ambition in international climate governance.However,the UK,as the source of the Industrial Revolution,has not always followed the so-called green norms in history.In the interaction with the EU norms after joining the European Community,the UK gradually developed from an"opponent"of green norms to an"advocate"of green norms.After"Brexit",the British government did not stop at the previous green norms of the EU,and further gave the green norms a special brand of the UK on this basis.At present,during the term of Boris Johnson's government,the green norms shaped by the UK have been basically formed and disseminated within a certain mechanism.In this paper,based on the normative power theory and relevant historical facts,how the UK has shaped international norms and obtained normative power through a series of climate policy will be discussed,and some enlightenment to China's participation in the construction of international norms system today will be obtained.

China's climate policy:does an Arctic dimension exist?

The article discusses whether and to what extent an Arctic dimension in Chinese climate policy exists, and whether there are signs of potential linkages between China＇s engagement in the Arctic and its domestic climate policies. Although the Arctic is not directly addressed in domestic climate policy, the article concludes that an Arctic dimension exists, in the following areas： the growing awareness in China of energy-related greenhouse gas emissions, climate risk, resilience and vulnerability, which has contributed to increased attention to climatic change in the Arctic and its impact on China; polar scientific research, which is largely climate related, plays a significant role in determining China＇s Arctic climate agenda; China＇s climate policymaking and domestic institutional set-up is a contributing factor to climate engagement in the Arctic; China＇s status as an observer nation in the Arctic Council might potentially raise the profile of domestic climate policies and lead to the addition of an Arctic pillar to national climate change strategies.

Modeling the Economic Costs of Climate Policy:An Overview

The overall objective of this paper is to scrutinize previous economic models used to assess the economic costs of cli-mate policy. We pay particular attention to the way in which different model structures and assumptions affect cost es-timates, and highlight the limitations and the strengths of different types of modelling approaches. The paper begins by briefly discussing the concept of economic costs, different cost categories (i.e., direct costs, partial equilibrium costs and general equilibrium costs), and the various model approaches that can be used to assess the economic impacts of climate policy (e.g., top-down versus bottom-up models). A systematic review of the main assumptions and methodo-logical choices that underlie different reported cost estimates is presented, and we distinguish between five main types of climate policy cost drivers: a) the baseline scenario;b) the structural characteristics of the models;c) the representa-tion of technological change (e.g., endogenous or exogenous);d) the design of climate policy;and e) the inclusion of non-market costs and benefits. The analysis shows that all these elements help explain model outcomes.

Attitudes of young scholars in Qingdao and Hamburg about climate changeand climate policy The role of culture for the explanation of differences

This article analyses differences in the attitudes related to climate change of young scholars in environmental science in Qingdao (China) and Hamburg (Germany). The main aim of the article is to evaluate the role of cultural differences for their explanation. We expect no significant differences in the attitudes related to the findings of climate research, since scientific principles are the joint basis of the scientific discourse wordwide. However, we expect that there are differences in the attitudes of the young scholars about the role of science, of the state and of the civil society for dealing with the challenge of climate change. We suggest that these can be explained with substantial cultural differences between both societies, with regard to the role of the state and the civil society for the solution of environmental problems. In order to evaluate these hypotheses, we have conducted a comparative survey among environmental science students in Qingdao (China) and Hamburg (Germany) about their attitudes towards climate change. The findings support our main hypotheses. The young scholars in Qingdao and Hamburg differ substantially in their views of the role of science in society and policymaking. Plausibly, these differences may mainly be explained with differences in the cultural ideas about the role of the state and of the civil society for the solution of environmental problems. Gradual differences in the share of young scholars who think that climate change has anthropogenic causes, may be explained with differences in the curriculum but also by cultural habits. This article makes a new contribution to the scientific debate by exploring the role of cultural differences for differences in the attitudes of young scholars in environmental science in connection with climate change and climate policy in different cultural contexts.

Perceptions of climate change in China:The research and policy connection

Global climate change has evolved from a scientific problem into an economic and political problem oI worlOwloe rater- est. National perspectives play a crucial role in addressing climate change. Mutual understanding of perspectives is nec- essary to result in rational policies and a consensus among stakeholders with divergent interests. Conceptual frameworks for understanding the problem of climate change in China, the largest developing country and the largest greenhouse gas emitter, are of great significance to national and international efforts to address the problems of climate change. Chinese perceptions of climate change as a sustainable development problem have recently been in tension with an emerging Western perspective that frames climate change as a security issue. This paper explores Chinese perceptions of climate change as expressed in recent governmental policy statements, public opinion surveys, and academic scholarship with a focus on publications in Chinese-language journals, often unfamiliar in the West. It looks at the relationship between Chinese research and policy and finds that the Chinese policy frame of climate change as a sustainable development problem draws from the body of domestic research and is reflective of the perspectives and multidisciplinary approach of Chinese researchers in areas of climate change.

Climate policy uncertainty and corporate investment:evidence from the Chinese energy industry

In recent years,with the increasing attention paid to climate risks,the changes in climate policies are also more full of uncertainties,which have brought tremendous impact to economic entities,including companies.Using the dynamic threshold model,this study investigates the nonlinear and the asymmetric effect of climate policy uncertainty on Chinese firm investment decisions with panel data of 128 Chinese energy-related companies from 2007 to 2019.The empirical findings indicate that the influence of climate policy uncertainty on firm investment is significantly nonlinear.Overall,climate policy uncertainty is not apparently related to corporate investments in the high-level range,while it negatively affects the investments in the low-level range.In addition,to be more specific,the negative impact of climate policy uncertainty on the mining industry is tremendous,while the influence on the production and supply of electricity,heat,gas,and water sector is remarkably positive.The results of this study could help the company managers and policymakers to arrange appropriate related strategies under different climate policy conditions.

Climate policy and cross-border lending:evidence from the syndicated loan market

Do cross-country differences in climate policy influence bank lending?This paper focusses on the period 2007–2017 and uses syndicated loan-level data to examine if the stringency of homecountry climate policies increases cross-border bank lending.Loan fixed effects allow us to disentangle loan demand from supply and to control for unobserved and observed loan and firm characteristics.I find evidence that a strict home-country climate policy is associated with an increase in banks’cross-border loan shares.This suggests that the transition to a low-carbon economy might be threatened if global coordination between governments is not enforced.

Progress and Prospects of Research on Climate Policy and Governance

Research on climate policy and governance has rapidly evolved since the early 1990s,yet there is a lack of a systematic review,especially in quantitative methods,that provides an overall account of this interdisciplinary field.This article provides a bibliometric analysis of 2487 SSCI journal articles published from 1990 to 2018 to characterize the intellectual landscape of climate policy and governance literature by visualizing the changes in researchers’collaboration and publications’cocitation and identifying the emerging research agenda.The findings show that publications on this topic have surged since the Kyoto Protocol came into effect in 2005.Environmental studies,economics,and public administration are three major disciplines drawing high attention to this field.Scholars and research institutions from the United States,the United Kingdom,and Germany have maintained dominance over climate policy and governance design.Moreover,we identify three pressing topics for creating future research agendas,including adaptive capacity,technology and innovation,and urban governance.Green technology innovation,local climate governance and the increasing political awareness will become future research trends.

Toward a more open and collaborative climate change policy framework in Hong Kong and Macao within the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area

The special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macao enjoy a high degree of autonomy from the national policy system in devising their local policies,including measures related to climate change.Hong Kong and Macao each have their own climate change policies,some aspects of which are more advanced than policies in China's Mainland.While their high degree of policy autonomy has advantages,this has also isolated them from China's larger environmental management and practices that continue to advance at scale.This paper reviews the climate change policies of the two special administrative regions and analyzes their strengths and innovations,particularly in adaptation.It also identifies areas where there could be closer engagement,collaboration,and capacity-building with the China's Mainland,which has the potential for greater positive impacts,especially on a regional basis.

Five tips for China to realize its co-targets of climate mitigation and Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs)

In 2018,a total of US$166 billion global economic losses and a new high of 55.3 Gt of CO_(2)equivalent emission were generated by 831 climate-related extreme events.As the world’s largest CO_(2)emitter,we reported China’s recent progresses and pitfalls in climate actions to achieve climate mitigation targets(i.e.,limit warming to 1.5-2°C above the pre-industrial level).We first summarized China’s integrated actions(2015 onwards)that benefit both climate change mitigation and Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs).These projects include re-structuring organizations,establishing working goals and actions,amending laws and regulations at national level,as well as increasing social awareness at community level.We then pointed out the shortcomings in different regions and sectors.Based on these analyses,we proposed five recommendations to help China improving its climate policy strategies,which include:1)restructuring the economy to balance short-term and long-term conflicts;2)developing circular economy with recycling mechanism and infrastructure;3)building up unified national standards and more accurate indicators;4)completing market mechanism for green economy and encouraging green consumption;and 5)enhancing technology innovations and local incentives via bottom-up actions.

Governing Climate Change Adaptation in the EU and China:An Analysis of Formal Institutions

Both the European Union （EU） and China are culturally, economically, climatologically and environmentally diverse polities. The EU is a multi-state grouping of economically developed democratic countries, while China is a unitary sovereign state and a developing economy with a strong government bureaucracy. Our hypothesis is that given their diverse political systems, the EU and China would develop different kinds of systems for the governance of adaptation to climate change. We test this hypothesis through a comparative analysis of policy documents from the two study areas, in which we examine framework policies, programmatic actions and specific actions that have been adopted to date in order to address climate change, with a specific focus on the water sector. We find that climate change adaptation began to be addressed through formal policy on a similar timeline in the two regions. The EU and China are also similar in that they use framework laws and existing sectoral policy, such as for the water sector. We find that the EU has primarily relied on integration of climate change adaptation concerns through legal instruments which set a framework for implementation of adaptation policy. In China, specific actions to be incorporated in socio-economic development plans under the existing legislation on adaptation have been the main mode for integrating adaptation into sectoral actions, though the future trend may be to develop more regulations.

China's adjustment of climate change policies:what lessons can be learned from the US?

From the US New Energy Plan, personnel appointment, and diplomatic activities, etc., we can see that US is now on the way to returning to the negotiation table and undertaking the leadership in addressing climate change. What US has done puts tremendous challenges on China, which emits large amount of greenhouse gas into the atmosphere. However, different from US, China is undergoing rapid development, and huge energy consumption is unavoidable. China has to make a balance between developing economy and addressing climate change. This paper focuses on the US climate change policies and its greenhouse gas emissions, and its influences on China climate change policy. China greenhouse gas emissions and relative policies are also analyzed to see what situation China is in, and what challenges that China is facing. Consequently, combing China's local situation, we propose several solutions for China to address climate change, i.e. moving towards a low carbon economy, struggling for emitting more, enhancing China-US cooperation, and implementing different climate change policies based on local situation. Meanwhile, the achievements that China has made are also introduced.

Right-wing and populist support for climate mitigation policies:Evidence from Poland and its carbon-intensive Silesia region

Research on environmental behaviour is often overlooked in literature on regime destabilization in energy transitions.This study addresses that gap by focusing on socio-political and demographic factors shaping support for carbon regime destabilization policies in one of the most carbon-intensive regions of Europe.Carbon-intensive industries,especially coal mining and coal-based power generation,are often concentrated in a few carbon-intensive regions.Therefore,decarbonization actions will affect those regions particularly strongly.Correspondingly,carbon-intensive regions often exert significant political influence on the two climate mitigation policies at the national level.Focusing on Poland,we investigate socio-political and demographic factors that correlate with the approval or rejection of the two climate mitigation policies:increasing taxes on fossil fuels such as oil,gas,and coal and using public money to subsidize renewable energy such as wind and solar power in Poland and its carbon-intensive Silesia region.Using logistic regression with individual-level data derived from the 2016 European Social Survey(ESS)and the 2014 Chapel Hill Expert Survey(CHES),we find partypolitical ideology to be an important predictor at the national level but much less so at the regional level.Specifically,voting for right-wing party is not a divisive factor for individual support of the two climate mitigation policies either nationally or regionally.More interestingly,populism is a strong factor in support of increasing taxes on fossil fuel in the carbon-intensive Silesia region but is less important concerning in support of using public money to subsidize renewable energy in Poland overall.These results show the heterogeneity of right-wing party and populism within the support for the two climate mitigation policies.Socio-demographic factors,especially age,gender,education level,employment status,and employment sector,have even more complex and heterogeneous components in support of the two climate mitigation policies at the national and regional levels.Identifying the complex socio-political and demographic factors of climate mitigation policies across different national versus carbon-intensive regional contexts is an essential step for generating in situ decarbonization strategies.

Could the EU carbon border adjustment mechanism promote climate mitigation?An economy-wide analysis

Due to concerns about carbon leakage and sectoral competitiveness,the European Union(EU)proposed implementing the carbon border adjustment mechanism(CBAM).The effectiveness and potential negative consequences of CBAM have aroused extensive discussion.From the perspective of the economy-wide analysis,this study uses a global computable general equilibrium model to explore the rationality of CBAM from the aspects of socioeconomic impact and the effects of promoting climate mitigation.Furthermore,the potential alternative mechanism of CBAM is proposed.The results show that CBAM can reduce the EU's gross domestic product(GDP)loss;however,the GDP loss in all other regions increases.Moreover,CBAM raises household welfare losses in most regions,including the EU.Second,although CBAM can reduce the marginal abatement cost in eight regions,it comes at the cost of greater economic losses.Furthermore,the economic and household welfare cost of raising emissions reduction targets in regions like the USA and Japan is substantially higher than the impact of passively accepting the CBAM;therefore,CBAM's ability to drive ambitious emission reduction initiatives may be limited.Finally,for the potential alternative mechanism,from the perspective of reducing economic cost and household welfare losses,the EU could implement domestic tax cuts in the short-term and promote global unified carbon pricing in the long-term.

Climate bonds toward achieving net zero emissions and carbon neutrality:Evidence from machine learning technique

The Conference of the Parties(COP26 and 27)placed significant emphasis on climate financing policies with the objective of achieving net zero emissions and carbon neutrality.However,studies on the implementation of this policy proposition are limited.To address this gap in the literature,this study employs machine learning techniques,specifically natural language processing(NLP),to examine 77 climate bond(CB)policies from 32 countries within the context of climate financing.The findings indicate that“sustainability”and“carbon emissions control”are the most outlined policy objectives in these CB policies.Additionally,the study highlights that most CB funds are invested toward energy projects(i.e.,renewable,clean,and efficient initiatives).However,there has been a notable shift in the allocation of CB funds from climate-friendly energy projects to the construction sector between 2015 and 2019.This shift raises concerns about the potential redirection of funds from climate-focused investments to the real estate industry,potentially leading to the greenwashing of climate funds.Furthermore,policy sentiment analysis revealed that a minority of policies hold skeptical views on climate change,which may negatively influence climate actions.Thus,the findings highlight that the effective implementation of CB policies depends on policy goals,objectives,and sentiments.Finally,this study contributes to the literature by employing NLP techniques to understand policy sentiments in climate financing.

The Clean Development Mechanism and Sustainable Development in China's Electricity Sector

The Clean Development Mechanism,a flexibility mechanism contained in the KyotoProtocol, offers China an important tool to attractinvestment in clean energy technology and processesinto its electricity sector. The Chinese electricitysector places centrally in the country’s economy andenvironment, being a significant contributor to theacid rain and air pollution problems that plague manyof China’s cities and regions, and therefore a focusof many related energy and environmental policies.China’s electricity sector has also been the subjectof a number of economic analyses that have showedthat it contains the highest potential for clean energyinvestment through the Clean DevelopmentMechanism of any economic sector in China. Thismechanism, through the active participation frominvestors in more industrialized countries, can helpalleviate the environmental problems attributable toelectricity generation in China through advancingsuch technology as wind electricity generation, cleancoal technology, high efficient natural gas electricitygeneration, or utilization of coal mine methane. Inthis context, the Clean Development Mechanismalso compliments a range of environmental and energypolicies which are strategizing to encourage thesustainable development of China’s economy.

Simulation of Hail and Soil Type Effects on Crop Yield Losses in Kansas,USA

Computer simulation was used for predictive analysis of the effects of weather and soil type on crop yield in the U.S. crop insurance program. The Environmental Policy Integrated Climate （EPIC） model was modified to include hail weather events, which completed the modifications necessary to simulate the four most frequent causes of crop yield loss （hail, excessive wet, excessive cold, and excessive dry） associated with soil type in Kansas, USA. At the region level, per hectare yields were simulated for corn, wheat, soybean, and sorghum. We concluded that it was possible to predict crop yields through computer simulation with greater than 93% accuracy. The hail damage model test indicated EPIC could predict hail-soil-induced yield losses reasonably well （R^2 〉 0.6）. The investigation of soil type influence on dryland sorghum and wheat production indicated that Wymore silty clay loam soil and Kenorna silt loam produced the highest sorghum yields statistically; Kuma silt loam, Roxbury silt loam, Crete silty clay loam, and Woodson silt soils produced the second highest sorghum yields statistically; and Richfiled silt loam, Wells loam, and Canadian sandy loam produced the lowest sorghum yields. By contrast, wheat production showed less sensitivity to soil type variation. The less sensitive response of wheat yields to the soil type could be largely due to the unconsidered small-scale variability of soil features.

Economic Implications of CO2 Emission Reduction in Japan Applying a Dynamic CGE Model with Endogenous Technological Change： Use of Emission Permit Revenue

This study analyzes the economic and environmental impacts of a climate change measure in Japan using a single-country dynamic computable general equilibrium model with technological change as an endogenous variable. In this way, a comprehensive analysis of the relationships between climate change and its measures, technology, and economy has been done. The model uses technological change as the accumulation of knowledge capital that is derived from research and development investment. The study investigates the impacts of a climate change measure considering the use of emission permit revenue and technological change induced by the policy implementation in the Japanese economy. Simulation results show that there is compatibility between CO2 emission reduction and positive effects on GDP that depends on the ways of the revenue use and technological change induced by emission reduction. However, it is not possible to find the ways to realize positive effects on both GDP and welfare simultaneously in the study. The sensitivity analysis for the elasticity of substitution between knowledge capital and other inputs also confirms the obtained results.

Climate pledges versus commitment: Are policy actions of Middle-East and North African countries consistent with their emissions targets?

Carbon emission is inevitable,and changes with energy consumption and economic development,presents policy options toward sustainable development path.Currently,there is little assurance from policymakers in committing to climate change pledges:taking the Middle-East and North African(MENA)region as a specific case with using 2019 as a cut-off period.We conducted an interim assessment of the Paris Agreement to ascertain whether climate actions are in tandem with emissions reduction targets.Making use of difference-in-difference technique as a quasiexperiment supported by fixed-effects and placebo treatment models,the results point to evidence of less than 1%effective CO_(2) emissions reduction as of 2019 compared to the 2015 level.The current carbon emissions reduction commitment level is far-reaching contrary to the Nationally Determined Contributions(NDCs)pledged(16.43%on average by 2030 compared to the 2015 level).The analysis suggests that achieving NDCs commitments are currently major burden on policymakers since the economic development is highly linked with nonrenewable energy consumption.Furthermore,a more comprehensive framework when accounting for all available renewable and clean energy projects shows reduction levels in the range of 30%-40%from 2020 to 2030.These results suggest that the Paris Agreement in MENA countries may be more effective from 2020,thus underscore the importance of capturing ongoing projects(involving renewable and clean energy technologies)into interim policy assessment.The shared implication is that greater efforts are demanded from the region and at country levels to further decrease emissions through the use of negative emissions technologies particularly in the electricity generation sector.

Economic Analysis of CO2 Emission Abatement Applying a Dynamic CGE Model with Endogenous Technological Change： Impacts of the Time Horizon

We evaluate economic and environmental impacts of climate change mitigation in a country scale considering various time horizons in the analysis applying a single-country dynamic computable general equilibrium model with endogenous technological change. Although there is a possibility that Gross Domestic Product （GDP） becomes larger for the abatement cases than the baseline case in the earlier years, it tends to be lower than that in the later years. The longer the time horizon and/or the more severe the abatement, the larger the negative impacts will be. When subsidizing R＆D investment, increase in GDP compared to the baseline case is realized in the middle of the time horizon, and the larger increase tends to be observed for the longer-term cases. These results would be due to technological change induced by the subsidies and emission abatement. Environmental indicators are also improved. We showed that the results were influenced by the target time horizon when using an intertemporal dynamic model.