Colorectal cancer cell dormancy:An insight into pathways

Cancer cell dormancy(CCD)in colorectal cancer(CRC)poses a significant challenge to effective treatment.In CRC,CCD contributes to tumour recurrence,drug resistance,and amplifying the disease's burden.The molecular mechanisms governing CCD and strategies for eliminating dormant cancer cells remain largely unexplored.Therefore,understanding the molecular mechanisms governing dormancy is crucial for improving patient outcomes and developing targeted therapies.This editorial highlights the complex interplay of signalling pathways and factors involved in colorectal CCD,emphasizing the roles of Hippo/YAP,pluripotent transcription factors such as NANOG,HIF-1αsignalling,and Notch signalling pathways.Additionally,ERK/p38α/β/MAPK pathways,AKT signalling pathway,and Extracellular Matrix Metalloproteinase Inducer,along with some potential less explored pathways such as STAT/p53 switch and canonical and non-canonical Wnt and SMAD signalling,are also involved in promoting colorectal CCD.Highlighting their clinical significance,these findings may offer the potential for identifying key dormancy regulator pathways,improving treatment strategies,surmounting drug resistance,and advancing personalized medicine approaches.Moreover,insights into dormancy mechanisms could lead to the development of predictive biomarkers for identifying patients at risk of recurrence and the tailoring of targeted therapies based on individual dormancy profiles.It is essential to conduct further research into these pathways and their modulation to fully comprehend CRC dormancy mechanisms and enhance patient outcomes.

How the interplay among the tumor microenvironment and the gut microbiota influences the stemness of colorectal cancer cells

Colorectal cancer(CRC)remains the third most prevalent cancer disease and involves a multi-step process in which intestinal cells acquire malignant characteristics.It is well established that the appearance of distal metastasis in CRC patients is the cause of a poor prognosis and treatment failure.Nevertheless,in the last decades,CRC aggressiveness and progression have been attributed to a specific cell population called CRC stem cells(CCSC)with features like tumor initiation capacity,self-renewal capacity,and acquired multidrug resistance.Emerging data highlight the concept of this cell subtype as a plastic entity that has a dynamic status and can be originated from different types of cells through genetic and epigenetic changes.These alterations are modulated by complex and dynamic crosstalk with environmental factors by paracrine signaling.It is known that in the tumor niche,different cell types,structures,and biomolecules coexist and interact with cancer cells favoring cancer growth and development.Together,these components constitute the tumor microenvironment(TME).Most recently,researchers have also deepened the influence of the complex variety of microorganisms that inhabit the intestinal mucosa,collectively known as gut microbiota,on CRC.Both TME and microorganisms participate in inflammatory processes that can drive the initiation and evolution of CRC.Since in the last decade,crucial advances have been made concerning to the synergistic interaction among the TME and gut microorganisms that condition the identity of CCSC,the data exposed in this review could provide valuable insights into the biology of CRC and the development of new targeted therapies.

Effects of hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor on the invasion of colorectal cancer cells in vitro

AIM: Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) is a multifunctional growth factor which has pleiotrophic biological effects on epithelial cells, such as proliferation, motogenesis, invas-iveness and morphogenesis. There are few reports about the role of HGF played in the colorectal cancer invasion. In the present study, we tried to investigate the possible mechanism of HGF involved in the invasion of colorectal cancer cells in vitro. METHODS: Matrigel migration assay was used to analyze the migrational ability of Caco-2 and Colo320 in vitro. We detected the mRNA expressive levels of MMP-2, MMP-9 and their natural inhibitors TIMP-1, TIMP-2 in Caco-2 cells by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique. RESULTS: After 48 h incubation, there were notable differences when we compared the migrational numbers of Caco-2 cells in the group of HGF and PD98059 (the inhibitor of p42/p44MAPK) with the control (104.40±4.77 vs 126.80±5.40, t= 7.17, P = 0.002<0.01; 104.40±4.77 vs 82.80±4.15, t= 7.96, P = 0.001<0.01). The deviation between the HGF and PD98059 was significant (P<0.01). Compared with controls, MMP-2 and MMP-9 mRNA expres-sions were up-regulated by HGF (0.997±0.011 vs 1.207±0.003, t = 35.002,P= 0.00K0.01; 0.387±0.128 vs 0.971±0.147, t = 106.036, P= 0.0000<0.01, respectively); compared with controls, TIMP-1, TIMP-2 mRNA expressions were increased by PD98059 (1.344±0.007 vs 1.905±0.049, t = 17.541, P= 0.003<0.01; 1.286±0.020 vs 1.887±0.022, t= 24.623, P= 0.002<0.01, respectively). CONCLUSION: HGF promoted Caco-2 migration mainly by p42/p44MAPK pathway; HGF/SF stimulated the expression of MMP-2, MMP-9 in Caco-2 and enabled tumoral cells to damage the ECM and reach the distant organ and develop metastasis; HGF played the function of promoted-invasion and promoted-metastasis, in which cellular selection was possible.

Roscovitine synergizes with conventional chemo-therapeutic drugs to induce efficient apoptosis of human colorectal cancer cells

AIM: To examine the ability of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor (CDKI) roscovitine (Rosco) to enhance the antitumor effects of conventional chemotherapeutic agents acting by different mechanisms against human colorectal cancer. METHODS: Human colorectal cancer cells were treat-ed, individually and in combination, with Rosco, taxol, 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU), doxorubicine or vinblastine. The antiproliferative effects and the type of interaction of Rosco with tested chemotherapeutic drugs were de-termined. Cell cycle alterations were investigated by fluorescence-activated cell sorter FACS analysis. Apop-tosis was determined by DNA fragmentation assay. RESULTS: Rosco inhibited the proliferation of tumor cells in a time-and dose-dependent manner. The ef-ficacies of all tested chemotherapeutic drugs were markedly enhanced 3.0-8.42 × 103 and 130-5.28 × 103 fold in combination with 5 and 10 μg/mL Rosco, re-spectively. The combination of Rosco and chemothera-peutic drugs inhibited the growth of human colorectal cancer cells in an additive or synergistic fashion, and in a time and dose dependent manner. Rosco induced apoptosis and synergized with tested chemothera-peutic drugs to induce efficient apoptosis in human colorectal cancer cells. Sequential, inverted sequential and simultaneous treatment of cancer cells with combi-nations of chemotherapeutic drugs and Rosco arrested the growth of human colorectal cancer cells at various phases of the cell cycle as follows: Taxol/Rosco (G2/M-and S-phases), 5-FU/Rosco (S-phase), Dox/Rosco (S-phase) and Vinb/Rosco (G2/M-and S-phases). CONCLUSION: Since the eff icacy of many anticancer drugs depends on their ability to induce apoptotic cell death, modulation of this parameter by cell cycle inhibi-tors may provide a novel chemo-preventive and chemo-therapeutic strategy for human colorectal cancer.

Molecular biomarkers for the detection of metastatic colorectal cancer cells

Approximately half of all patients with colorectal cancer develop local recurrence or distant metastasis during the course of their illness. Recently, the molecular detection of metastatic cancer cells in various types of clinical samples, such as lymph nodes, bone marrow, peripheral blood, and peritoneal lavage fluid, has been investigated as a potential prognostic marker. The prognostic value of molecular tumor cell detection was independent of the type of detection method used. As assays become more sensitive and quantitative, a more thorough assessment of the cancer status of patients will be based on molecular markers alone. At present, it is difficult to conclude that one specific molecular marker is superior to others. Comparative analyses are recommended to assess the prognostic impact of molecular analyses in the same patient and determine the biomarkers that provide the most accurate prognostic information.

Knockdown of GRHL3 Inhibits Activities and Induces Cell Cycle Arrest and Apoptosis of Human Colorectal Cancer Cells

The Grainyhead-like 3（GRHL3） is involved in epidermal barrier formation, neural tube closure and wound repair. Previous studies have suggested that GRHL3 has been linked to many different types of cancers. However, to date, its effects on human colorectal cancer（CRC） has not been clarified yet. Our microarray analysis has indicated predominant GRHL3 expression in CRC. The purpose of this study was to investigate the expression and significance of GRHL3 in CRC tumorigenesis using CRC tissues and paired paracancerous tissues, as well as using distinct CRC cell lines（HT29 and DLD1）. We observed increased GRHL3 expression at both m RNA and protein levels in CRC tissues and CRC cell lines using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction（q RT-PCR） and Western blotting. Moreover, silencing GRHL3 with si RNA could suppress CRC cell proliferation, viability and migration in vitro. We also found that knockdown of GRHL3 could promote cell cycle arrest at G0/G1 phase in HT29 cells and DLD1 cells, and induce cell apoptosis in HT29 cells. Together, our study revealed the down-regulation of GRHL3 in vitro could inhibit CRC cell activity and trigger cell cycle arrest at G0/G1 phase and apoptosis.

Monotropein Induced Apoptosis and Suppressed Cell Cycle Progression in Colorectal Cancer Cells

Objective: To determine whether monotropein has an anticancer effect and explore its potential mechanisms against colorectal cancer(CRC) through network pharmacology and molecular docking combined with experimental verification. Methods: Network pharmacology and molecular docking were used to predict potential targets of monotropein against CRC. Cell counting kit assay, plate monoclonal assay and microscopic observation were used to investigate the antiproliferative effects of monotropein on CRC cells HCT116, HT29 and LoVo. Flow cytometry and scratch assay were used to analyze apoptosis and cell cycle, as well as cell migration, respectively in HCT116, HT29, and LoVo cells. Western blotting was used to detect the expression of proteins related to apoptosis, cell cycle, and cell migration, and the expression of proteins key to the Akt pathway. Results: The Gene Ontology and Reactome enrichment analyses indicated that the anticancer potential of monotropein against CRC might be involved in multiple cancer-related signaling pathways. Among these pathways, RAC-beta serine/threonine-protein kinase(Akt1, Akt2), cyclin-dependent kinase 6(CDK6), matrix metalloproteinase-9(MMP9), epidermal growth factor receptor(EGFR), cell division control protein 42 homolog(CDC42) were shown as the potential anticancer targets of monotropein against CRC. Molecular docking suggested that monotropein may interact with the 6 targets(Akt1, Akt2, CDK6, MMP9, EGFR, CDC42). Subsequently, cell activity of HCT116, HT29 and LoVo cell lines were significantly suppressed by monotropein(P<0.05). Furthermore, our research revealed that monotropein induced cell apoptosis by inhibiting Bcl-2 and increasing Bax, induced G_1–S cycle arrest in colorectal cancer by decreasing the expressions of CyclinD1, CDK4 and CDK6, inhibited cell migration by suppressing the expressions of CDC42 and MMP9(P<0.05), and might play an anticancer role through Akt signaling pathway. Conclusions: Monotropein exerts its antitumor effects primarily by arresting the cell cycle, causing cell apoptosis, and inhibiting cell migration. This indicates a high potential for developing novel medication for treating CRC.

VX-509 attenuates the stemness characteristics of colorectal cancer stem-like cells by regulating the epithelial-mesenchymal transition through Nodal/Smad2/3 signaling

BACKGROUND Colorectal cancer stem cells(CCSCs)are heterogeneous cells that can self-renew and undergo multidirectional differentiation in colorectal cancer(CRC)patients.CCSCs are generally accepted to be important sources of CRC and are responsible for the progression,metastasis,and therapeutic resistance of CRC.Therefore,targeting this specific subpopulation has been recognized as a promising strategy for overcoming CRC.AIM To investigate the effect of VX-509 on CCSCs and elucidate the underlying mechanism.METHODS CCSCs were enriched from CRC cell lines by in conditioned serum-free medium.Western blot,Aldefluor,transwell and tumorigenesis assays were performed to verify the phenotypic characteristics of the CCSCs.The anticancer efficacy of VX-509 was assessed in HCT116 CCSCs and HT29 CCSCs by performing cell viability analysis,colony formation,sphere formation,flow cytometry,and western blotting assessments in vitro and tumor growth,immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence assessments in vivo.RESULTS Compared with parental cells,sphere cells derived from HCT116 and HT29 cells presented increased expression of stem cell transcription factors and stem cell markers and were more potent at promoting migration and tumori-genesis,demonstrating that the CRC sphere cells displayed CSC features.VX-509 inhibited the tumor malignant biological behavior of CRC-stem-like cells,as indicated by their proliferation,migration and clonality in vitro,and suppressed the tumor of CCSC-derived xenograft tumors in vivo.Besides,VX-509 suppressed the CSC character-istics of CRC-stem-like cells and inhibited the progression of epithelial-mesenchymal transition(EMT)signaling in vitro.Nodal was identified as the regulatory factor of VX-509 on CRC stem-like cells through analyses of differen-tially expressed genes and CSC-related database information.VX-509 markedly downregulated the expression of Nodal and its downstream phosphorylated Smad2/3 to inhibit EMT progression.Moreover,VX-509 reversed the dedifferentiation of CCSCs and inhibited the progression of EMT induced by Nodal overexpression.CONCLUSION VX-509 prevents the EMT process in CCSCs by inhibiting the transcription and protein expression of Nodal,and inhibits the dedifferentiated self-renewal of CCSCs.

Effect of colorectal cancer stem cells on the development and metastasis of colorectal cancer

The relevant mechanism of tumor-associated macrophages(TAMs)in the treatment of colorectal cancer patients with immune checkpoint inhibitors(ICIs)is discussed,and the application prospects of TAMs in reversing the treatment tolerance of ICIs are discussed to provide a reference for related studies.As a class of drugs widely used in clinical tumor immunotherapy,ICIs can act on regulatory molecules on cells that play an inhibitory role-immune checkpoints-and kill tumors in the form of an immune response by activating a variety of immune cells in the immune system.The sensitivity of patients with different types of colorectal cancer to ICI treatment varies greatly.The phenotype and function of TAMs in the colorectal cancer microenvironment are closely related to the efficacy of ICIs.ICIs can regulate the phenotypic function of TAMs,and TAMs can also affect the tolerance of colorectal cancer to ICI therapy.TAMs play an important role in ICI resistance,and making full use of this target as a therapeutic strategy is expected to improve the immunotherapy efficacy and prognosis of patients with colorectal cancer.

Mutation analysis of the checkpoint kinase 2 gene in colorectal cancer cell lines

Background Checkpoint kinase 2 （CHK2） is a DNA damage-activated protein kinase which is involved in cell cycle checkpoint control, CHK2 gene could be a candidate gene for colorectal cancer susceptibility, But there are few systematic reports on mutation of CHK2 in colorectal cancer. Methods The mutations of all 14 exons of CHK2 in 56 colorectal cancer cell lines were screened systematically, using denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography （DHPLC） to screen the mismatches of the CHK2 exons amplified products, and then the suspected mutant cell lines were scanned by nucleotide sequence analysis. Results VACO400 in CHK2 exon la was suspected to have mutation by DHPLC and confirmed by sequence, but this was nonsense mutation. C106, CX-1, HT-29, SK01, SW480, SW620 and VACO400 in CHK2 exon lb were confirmed to have the same nonsense mutation in 11609 A〉G. DLD-1 and HCT-15 in CHK2 exon 2 were confirmed to have missense mutation R145W, which was heterozygous C〉T missense mutation at nucleotide 433, leading to an Arg〉Trp substitution within the FHA domain. Conclusions The CHK2 mutation in colorectal cancer is a low frequency event, There are just 10 cell lines to have sequence variations in all the 14 exons in 56 colorectal cancer cell lines and only DLD-1/HCT-15 had heterozygous missense mutation. These findings may give useful information of susceptibility of colorectal cancer as single nucleotide polvmorphvsim.

Elp3 modulates neural crest and colorectal cancer migration requiring functional integrity of HAT and SAM domains

Cell migration is a finely tuned biological process that often involves epithelial-mesenchymal transition(EMT).EMT is typically characterized by the upregulation of mesenchymal markers such as Snail1.This process has been shown to be of critical importance to normal developmental processes,including neural crest migration and invasion.Interestingly,similar mechanisms are utilized in disease processes,such as tumor metastasis and migration.Notably,EMT and EMT-like processes confer tumor cells with the ability to migrate,invade,and adopt stem cell-like properties that largely account for immunosuppression and tumor recurrence.Therefore,identifying sensitive EMT markers may contribute to cancer prognosis and diagnosis in many facets.Previously,we showed that Elp3 plays an essential role during neural crest migration by stabilizing Snail1.In the current study,we further elucidate the molecular mechanism underlying colorectal cancer migration.We found that mElp3 exerted an identical function to xElp3 in modulating neural crest migration,and both HAT and SAM domains are imperative during this migratory process.Interestingly,overexpression of mElp3 in SW480 cells promoted cell migration and invasion,and we further showed that Elp3 stabilized Snail1 requiring integrity of both SAM and HAT domains.Our findings warrant further exploration of the specific target of Elp3 in cancer cells.

IL-13/IL-13RA2 signaling promotes colorectal cancer stem cell tumorigenesis by inducing ubiquitinated degradation of p53

Cancer stem cells(CSCs)are considered tumor-initiating cells and the main drivers of disease progression.Targeting these rare cancer cells,however,remains challenging with respect to therapeutic benefit.Here,we report the up-regulation of IL-13RA2 expression in colorectal cancer(CRC)tissues and spheroid cells.The expression of IL-13RA2 was positively correlated with canonical stemness markers in CRC.We further demonstrated that the level of IL-13 was up-regulated in the serum of CRC patients.Biologically,recombinant IL-13(rIL13)stimulation promoted the sphere formation,proliferation,and migration of CRC cells in vitro and enhanced tumorigenesis in vivo.This phenotype could be reversed by knocking down IL-13RA2.Mechanistically,IL-13 activated autophagy by inducing LC3I/LC3II transformation in CRC-CSCs,which was crucial for the biological functions of IL-13.We further demonstrated that IL-13RA2 acted as a modular link of the E3 ligase UBE3C and the substrate p53 protein,enhancing the interaction of UBE3C and p53,thereby inducing the K48-linked ubiquitination of p53.In conclusion,the IL-13/IL-13RA2 signaling cascade promotes CRC-CSC self-renewal and tumorigenesis by inducing p53 ubiquitination,adding an important layer to the connection between IL-13 and p53,which can be translated into novel targeted therapies.

Growth Inhibition Effect of DL-Lysine Acetylalicylate on sw480 Colon Carcinoma Cells

Objective： To investigate the effect of DL-lysine acetylsalicylate on proliferation of colon carcinoma cells line sw480. Methods： After treatment of DL-lysine acetylsalicylate, the study was performed by observing sw480 colorectal cancer cells with phase contrast microscope, making growth curve, and examining the inhibition rate of sw480 cells with MTT assay. Results： The morphology of sw480 cells showed characteristics of apoptosis, the cell growth curve showed inhibited proliferation of sw480 cells when treated with DL-lysine acetylsalicylate （P〈0.05）. The rate of inhibition was upward when the drug concentration increased. Conclusion： DL-lysine acetylsalicylate for injection can inhibit the growth of sw480 colorectal cancer cells obviously in a dose dependent manner.

ROS and Lipid Droplet accumulation induced by high glucose exposure in healthy colon and Colorectal Cancer Stem Cells

Lipid Droplets(LDs)are emerging as crucial players in colon cancer development and maintenance.Their expression has been associated with high tumorigenicity in Cancer Stem Cells(CSCs),so that they have been proposed as a new functional marker in Colorectal Cancer Stem Cells(CR-CSCs).They are also indirectly involved in the modulation of the tumor microenvironment through the production of pro-inflammatory molecules.There is growing evidence that a possible connection between metabolic alterations and malignant transformation exists,although the effects of nutrients,primarily glucose,on the CSC behavior are still mostly unexplored.Glucose is an essential fuel for cancer cells,and the connections with LDs in the healthy and CSC populations merit to be more deeply investigated.Here,we showed that a high glucose concentration activated the PI3K/AKT pathway and increased the expression of CD133 and CD44v6 CSC markers.Additionally,glucose was responsible for the increased amount of Reactive Oxygen Species(ROS)and LDs in both healthy and CR-CSC samples.We also investigated the gene modulations following the HG treatment and found out that the healthy cell gene profile was the most affected.Lastly,Atorvastatin,a lipidlowering drug,induced the highest mortality on CR-CSCs without affecting the healthy counterpart.

Molecular insights into colorectal cancer stem cell regulation by environmental factors

Colorectal cancer remains a signifi cant cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide,mainly because of tumor relapse and metastases.Cancer stem cells(CSCs)are considered to be the main cause of resistance to chemotherapeutic agents,as well as being responsible for distant metastases.Although CSCs themselves possess innate abilities for self-renewal and differentiation,the environment surrounding CSCs provides oxygen,nutrients and secreted factors,and also supports angiogenesis,thus it's responsible for maintaining their CSC properties.Furthermore,extensive investigations have revealed that obesity,accompanied by excess visceral adipose tissue,induces chronic infl ammation,and is linked to the risk and progression of several gastrointestinal cancers,through modulating the capacities of the CSCs.This review presents the evidence linking colorectal CSCs and their environment and summarizes our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying this relationship.

Bioinformatics research of CD44 and epithelial cell adhesion molecule related genes and pathways in colorectal cancer

Objective To investigate genes and involved biological processes closely associated with stem cell markers of colorectal cancer-epithelial cell adhesion molecule(EpCAM)+and CD44+.Methods By the bioinformatics method,with microarray data of colorectal cancer from gene expression omnibus(GEO)database and R2 platform,the genes significantly related with CD44 and Ep-

Anti-colorectal cancer effects of tripolinolate A from Tripolium vulgare

Tripolinolate A(TLA) is recently identified as a new compound from a halophyte plant Tripolium vulgare and has been shown to have significant in vitro activity against the proliferation of colorectal cancer and glioma cells. This study was designed to further investigate the effects of TLA on the proliferation of human normal cells, and the apoptosis and cell cycle in colorectal cancer cells, and the growth of tumors in the colorectal cancer-bearing animals. The data obtained from this study demonstrated that: 1) TLA had much less cytotoxicity in the human normal cells than the colorectal cancer cells; 2) TLA remarkably induced apoptosis in the human colorectal cancer cells and blocked cell cycle at G2/M phase, and 3) TLA had significant anti-colorectal cancer activity in the tumor-bearing animals.