Experimental and numerical study on dynamic mechanical behaviors of shale under true triaxial compression at high strain rate

High-energy gas fracturing of shale is a novel,high efficacy and eco-friendly mining technique,which is a typical dynamic perturbing behavior.To effectively extract shale gas,it is important to understand the dynamic mechanical properties of shale.Dynamic experiments on shale subjected to true triaxial compression at different strain rates are first conducted in this research.The dynamic stress-strain curves,peak strain,peak stress and failure modes of shale are investigated.The results of the study indicate that the intermediate principal stress and the minor principal stress have the significant influence on the dynamic mechanical behaviors,although this effect decreases as the strain rate increases.The characteristics of compression-shear failure primarily occur in shale subjected to triaxial compression at high strain rates,which distinguishes it from the fragmentation characteristics observed in shale under dynamic uniaxial compression.Additionally,a numerical three-dimensional Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar(3D-SHPB),which is established by coupling PFC3D and FLAC3D methods,is validated to replicate the laboratory characteristics of shale.The dynamic mechanical characteristics of shale subjected to different confining stresses are systematically investigated by the coupling PFC3D and FLAC3D method.The numerical results are in good agreement with the experimental data.

基于MCS-SBL算法的配电网故障定位方法

配电网拓扑结构复杂,传统方法往往需要大量测点信息且难以实现快速有效的故障定位,本文提出基于少量测点信息的故障定位方法。首先,利用等效原理建立一个欠定的故障节点电压方程;其次,利用多重测量向量模型的贝叶斯压缩感知算法求解方程,根据重构稀疏电流矩阵的非零元素位置求解故障区域,实现故障定位;最后,在IEEE33节点配电系统上进行仿真实验,结果表明,所提方法仅需要少量测点的故障前后正序电压分量便可有效定位故障,计算速度较快,并且基本不受故障类型、过渡电阻的影响,同时适用于单故障和多重故障的场景,具有较强的抗噪能力。

Acetic acid-assisted mild dealloying of fine CuPd nanoalloys achieving compressive strain toward high-efficiency oxygen reduction and ethanol oxidation electrocatalysis

Dealloying by which the transition metal is partially or completely leached from an alloy precursor is an effective way to optimize the fundamental effects for further enhancing the electrocatalysis of a catalyst.Herein,to address the deficiencies associated with the commonly used dealloying methods,for example,electrochemical and sulfuric acid/nitric acid treatment,we report an acetic acid-assisted mild strategy to dealloy Cu atoms from the outer surface layers of CuPd alloy nanoparticles to achieve high-efficiency electrocatalysis for oxygen reduction and ethanol oxidation in an alkaline electrolyte.The leaching of Cu atoms by acetic acid exerts an additional compressive strain effect on the surface layers and exposes more active Pd atoms,which is beneficial for boosting the catalytic performance of a dealloyed catalyst for the oxygen reduction reaction(ORR)and the ethanol oxidation reaction(EOR).In particular,for ORR,the CuPd nanoparticles with a Pd/Cu molar ratio of 2:1 after acetic dealloying show a half-wave potential of 0.912 V(vs.RHE)and a mass activity of 0.213 AmgPd^(-1) at 0.9 V,respectively,while for EOR,the same dealloyed sample has a mass activity and a specific activity of 8.4 Amg^(-1) and 8.23 mA cm^(-2),respectively,much better than their dealloyed counterparts at other temperatures and commercial Pd/C as well as a Pt/C catalyst.

Deformation and failure characteristics of sandstone under uniaxial compression using distributed fiber optic strain sensing

This paper investigates the deformation and fracture propagation of sandstone specimen under uniaxial compression using the distributed fiber optic strain sensing(DFOSS)technology.It shows that the DFOSS-based circumferential strains are in agreement with the data monitored with the traditional strain gage.The DFOSS successfully scans the full-field view of axial and circumferential strains on the specimen surface.The spatiotemporal strain measurement based on DFOSS manifests crack closure and elastoplastic deformation,detects initialization of microcrack nucleation,and identifies strain localization within the specimen.The DFOSS well observes the effects of rock heterogeneity on rock deformation.The advantage of DFOSS-based strain acquisition includes the high spatiotemporal resolution of signals and the ability of full-surface strain scanning.The introduction to the DFOSS technology yields a better understanding of the rock damage process under uniaxial compression.

Strain-Rate Dependency of a Unidirectional Filament Wound Composite under Compression

This article presents the results of experimental studies concerning the dynamic deformation and failure of a unidirectional carbon fiber reinforced plastic(T700/LY113)under compression.The test samples were manufactured through the filament winding of flat plates.To establish the strain rate dependencies of the strength and elastic modulus of the material,dynamic tests were carried out using a drop tower,the Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar method,and standard static tests.The samples were loaded both along and perpendicular to the direction of the reinforcing fiber.The applicability of the obtained samples for static and dynamic tests was confirmed through finite elementmodeling and the high-speed imaging of the deformation and failure of samples during testing.As a result of the conducted experimental studies,static and dynamic stress-strain curves,time dependencies of deformation and the stress and strain rates of the samples during compression were obtained.Based on these results,the strain rate dependencies of the strength and elasticity modulus in the strain rate range of 0.001-6001/s are constructed.It is shown that the strain rate significantly affects the strength and deformation characteristics of the unidirectional carbon fiber composites under compression.An increase in the strain rate by 5 orders of magnitude increased the strength and elastic modulus along the fiber direction by 42%and 50%,respectively.Perpendicular loading resulted in a strength and elastic modulus increase by 58%and 50%,respectively.The average strength along the fibers at the largest studied strain rate was about 1000MPa.The obtained results can be used to design structural elements made of polymer composite materials operating under dynamic shock loads,as well as to build models of mechanical behavior and failure criteria of such materials,taking into account the strain rate effects.

The role of strain in oxygen evolution reaction

The oxygen evolution reaction(OER)is a crucial step in metal-air batteries and water splitting technologies,playing a significant role in the efficiency and achievable heights of these two technologies.However,the OER is a four-step,four-electron reaction,and its slow kinetics result in high overpotentials,posing a challenge.To address this issue,numerous strategies involving modified catalysts have been proposed and proven to be highly efficient.In these strategies,the introduction of strain has been widely reported because it is generally believed to effectively regulate the electronic structure of metal sites and alter the adsorption energy of catalyst surfaces with reaction intermediates.However,strain has many other effects that are not well known,making it an important yet unexplored area.Based on this,this review provides a detailed introduction to the various roles of strain in OER.To better explain these roles,the review also presents the definition of strain and elucidates the potential mechanisms of strain in OER based on the d-band center theory and adsorption volcano plot.Additionally,the review showcases various ways of introducing strain in OER through examples reported in the latest literature,aiming to provide a comprehensive perspective for the development of strain engineering.Finally,the review analyzes the appropriate proportion of strain introduction,compares compressive and tensile strain,and examines the impact of strain on stability.And the review offers prospects for future research directions in this emerging field.

Determination of Material Parameters of EVA Foam under Uniaxial Compressive Testing Using Hyperelastic Models

The objective of this research was to determine the mechanical parameter from EVA foam and also investigate its behavior by using Blatz-Ko,Neo-Hookean,Mooney model and experimental test.The physical characteristic of EVA foam was also evaluated by scanning electron microscopy(SEM).The results show that Blatz-Ko and Neo-Hookean model can fit the curve at 5%and 8%strain,respectively.The Mooney model can fit the curve at 50%strain.The modulus of rigidity evaluated from Mooney model is 0.0814±0.0027 MPa.The structure of EVA foam from SEM image shows that EVA structure is a closed cell with homogeneous porous structure.From the result,it is found that Mooney model can adjust the data better than other models.This model can be applied for mechanical response prediction of EVA foam and also for reference value in engineering application.

Characteristics of present-day active strain field of Chinese mainland

On the basis of the GPS data obtained from repeated measurements carried out in 2004 and 2007,the horizontal principal strain of the Chinese mainland is calculated,which shows that the direction of principal compressive strain axis of each subplate is basically consistent with the P-axis of focal mechanism solution and the principal compressive stress axis acquired by geological method.It indicates that the crustal tectonic stress field is relatively stable in regions in a long time.The principal compressive stress axes of Qinghai-Tibet and Xinjiang subplates in the western part of Chinese mainland direct to NS and NNE-SSW,which are controlled by the force from the col-lision of the Eurasia Plate and India Plate.The principal compressive strain axes of Heilongjiang and North China subplates in the eastern part direct to ENE-WSW,which shows that they are subject to the force from the collision and underthrust of the Eurasia Plate to the North America and Pacific plates.At the same time,they are also af-fected by the lateral force from Qinghai-Tibet and Xinjiang subplates.The principal compressive strain axis of South China plate is WNW-ESE,which reflects that it is affected by the force from the collision of Philippine Sea Plate and Eurasia Plate and it is also subject to the lateral force from Qinghai-Tibet subplate.It is apparent from the comparison between the principal compressive strain axes in the periods of 2004～2007 and 2001～2004 that the acting directions of principal compressive stress of subplates in both periods are basically consistent.However,there is certain difference between their directional concentrations of principal compressive stress axes.The sur-face strain rates of different tectonic units in both periods indicate that the events predominating by compressive variation decrease,while the events predominating by tensile change increase.

Specimen aspect ratio and progressive field strain development of sandstone under uniaxial compression by three-dimensional digital image correlation

The complete stress-strain characteristics of sandstone specimens were investigated in a series of quasistatic monotonic uniaxial compression tests.Strain patterns development during pre-and post-peak behaviours in specimens with different aspect ratios was also examined.Peak stress,post-peak portion of stress-strain,brittleness,characteristics of progressive localisation and field strain patterns development were affected at different extents by specimen aspect ratio.Strain patterns of the rocks were obtained by applying three-dimensional(3D) digital image correlation(DIC) technique.Unlike conventional strain measurement using strain gauges attached to specimen,3D DIC allowed not only measuring large strains,but more importantly,mapping the development of field strain throughout the compression test,i.e.in pre-and post-peak regimes.Field strain development in the surface of rock specimen suggests that strain starts localising progressively and develops at a lower rate in pre-peak regime.However,in post-peak regime,strains increase at different rates as local deformations take place at different extents in the vicinity and outside the localised zone.The extent of localised strains together with the rate of strain localisation is associated with the increase in rate of strength degradation.Strain localisation and local inelastic unloading outside the localised zone both feature post-peak regime.

变化信道稀疏度的CSI反馈方法

在大规模多输入多输出(multiple input multiple output,MIMO)系统中,压缩感知(compressed sensing,CS)技术常用于具有稀疏特性的信道状态信息(channel state information,CSI)反馈。针对CS重构时信道稀疏度通常未知的问题,基于深度展开技术提出了一种变化信道稀疏度的CSI反馈方法(a CSI-feedback method for varying channel sparsity,AVCS)。AVCS将信道稀疏度作为训练参数,学习得到通用的网络架构。随着天线数量增大导致信道(矩阵)维度激增,学习网络所得的相互抑制矩阵会呈现二次增长问题,AVCS利用相互抑制矩阵托普利兹(Toeplitz)特性设计了降维卷积网络,解决CSI反馈时的计算复杂度问题。仿真结果表明,所提方法提高了在大规模MIMO系统下CSI重构的适用性,减少了反馈开销且对信道稀疏度具有鲁棒性。

Full-field mapping of internal strain distribution in red sandstone specimen under compression using digital volumetric speckle photography and X-ray computed tomography

It is always desirable to know the interior deformation pattern when a rock is subjected to mechanicalload. Few experimental techniques exist that can represent full-field three-dimensional （3D） straindistribution inside a rock specimen. And yet it is crucial that this information is available for fully understandingthe failure mechanism of rocks or other geomaterials. In this study, by using the newlydeveloped digital volumetric speckle photography （DVSP） technique in conjunction with X-ray computedtomography （CT） and taking advantage of natural 3D speckles formed inside the rock due to materialimpurities and voids, we can probe the interior of a rock to map its deformation pattern under load andshed light on its failure mechanism. We apply this technique to the analysis of a red sandstone specimenunder increasing uniaxial compressive load applied incrementally. The full-field 3D displacement fieldsare obtained in the specimen as a function of the load, from which both the volumetric and the deviatoricstrain fields are calculated. Strain localization zones which lead to the eventual failure of the rock areidentified. The results indicate that both shear and tension are contributing factors to the failuremechanism. 2015 Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Production and hosting byElsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

High strain rate compressive strength behavior of cemented paste backfill using split Hopkinson pressure bar

The stability of cemented paste backfill(CPB)is threatened by dynamic disturbance,but the conventional low strain rate laboratory pressure test has difficulty achieving this research purpose.Therefore,a split Hopkinson pressure bar(SHPB)was utilized to investigate the high strain rate compressive behavior of CPB with dynamic loads of 0.4,0.8,and 1.2 MPa.And the failure modes were determined by macro and micro analysis.CPB with different cement-to-tailings ratios,solid mass concentrations,and curing ages was prepared to conduct the SHPB test.The results showed that increasing the cement content,tailings content,and curing age can improve the dynamic compressive strength and elastic modulus.Under an impact load,a higher strain rate can lead to larger increasing times of the dynamic compressive strength when compared with static loading.And the dynamic compressive strength of CPB has an exponential correlation with the strain rate.The macroscopic failure modes indicated that CPB is more seriously damaged under dynamic loading.The local damage was enhanced,and fine cracks were formed in the interior of the CPB.This is because the CPB cannot dissipate the energy of the high strain rate stress wave in a short loading period.

Dynamic compressive property and failure behavior of extruded Mg-Gd-Y alloy under high temperatures and high strain rates

For the purpose of investigating the dynamic deformational behavior and failure mechanisms of magnesium under high strain rates,the Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar(SHPB)was used for investigating dynamic mechanical properties of extruded Mg-Gd-Y Magnesium alloy at ambient temperature(300 K),200℃(473 K)and 300℃(573 K)temperature.The samples after compression were analyzed by scanning electron microscope(SEM)and metallographic microscope.Dynamic mechanical properties,crack performance and plastic deformation mechanism of extruded Mg-Gd-Y Magnesium alloy along the extrusion direction(ED)were discussed.The results show that,extruded Mg-Gd-Y Magnesium alloy has the largest dynamic compressive strength which is 535 MPa at ambient temperature(300 K)and strain rate of 2826 s^(−1).When temperature increases,dynamic compressive strength decreases,while ductility increases.The dynamic compression fracture mechanism of extruded Mg-Gd-Y Magnesium alloy is multi-crack propagation and intergranular quasi-cleavage fracture at both ambient temperature and high temperature.The dynamic compressive deformation mechanism of extruded Mg-Gd-Y Magnesium alloy is a combination of twinning,slipping and dynamic recrystallization at both ambient temperature and high temperature.

Influence of prior austenite grain size on the critical strain for completion of DEFT through hot compression test

A low carbon steel was used to determine the critical strain εc for completion of deformation enhanced ferrite transformation （DEFT） through a series of hot compression tests. In addition, the influence of prior austenite grain size （PAGS） on the critical strain was systematically investigated. Experimental results showed that the critical strain is affected by PAGS. When γ→α transformation completes, the smaller the PAGS is, the smaller the critical strain is. The ferrite grains obtained through DEFT can be refined to about 3 μm when the DEFT is completed.

Effect of strain rate and water-to-cement ratio on compressive mechanical behavior of cement mortar

Effects of strain rate and water-to-cement ratio on the dynamic compressive mechanical behavior of cement mortar are investigated by split Hopkinson pressure bar(SHPB) tests. 124 specimens are subjected to dynamic uniaxial compressive loadings.Strain rate sensitivity of the materials is measured in terms of failure modes, stress-strain curves, compressive strength, dynamic increase factor(DIF) and critical strain at peak stress. A significant change in the stress-strain response of the materials with each order of magnitude increase in strain rate is clearly seen from test results. The slope of the stress-strain curve after peak value for low water-to-cement ratio is steeper than that of high water-to-cement ratio mortar. The compressive strength increases with increasing strain rate. With increase in strain rate, the dynamic increase factor(DIF) increases. However, this increase in DIF with increase in strain rate does not appear to be a function of the water-to-cement ratio. The critical compressive strain increases with the strain rate.

RECRYSTALLIZATION BEHAVIOR AND PRIOR AUSTENITE GRAIN BOUNDARY CORROSION IN THE PLANE STRAIN COMPRESSION CONDITION FOR A LOW CARBON X70 PIPELINE STEEL

Recrystallization behavior of a low carbon X70 pipeline steel was studied in the plane strain compression condition. It was found that the dynamic recovery but no dynamic recrystal- lization occurred in the current experimental condition. A method for examining the prior austenite grain boundary corrosion was supposed.

Deformability characteristics of jointed rock masses under uniaxial compression

We investigated the combined influence of joint inclination angle and joint continuity factor on deformation behavior of jointed rock mass for gypsum specimens with a set of non-persistent open flaws in uniaxial compression.Complete axial stress-strain curves were classified into four types,i.e.,single peak,softening after multi-peak yield platform,hardening after multi-peak yield platform and multi-peak during softening.Observation of crack evolution on the specimen surface reveals that the deformation behavior is correlated to the closure of pre-existing joint,development of fractures in rock matrix and teeth shearing of the shear plane.To investigate the brittleness of the specimens,the ratio of the residual strength to the maximum peak strength as well as the first and last peak strains were studied.At the same joint inclination angle,the ratios between residual strength and the maximum peak strength and the last peak strains increased while the first peak strain decreased with the increase of joint continuity factor.At the same joint continuity factor,the curves of the three brittleness parameters vs.joint inclination angle can either be concave or convex single-peak or wave-shaped.

A crystal plasticity based approach to establish role of grain size and crystallographic texture in the Tension–Compression yield asymmetry and strain hardening behavior of a Magnesium–Silver–Rare Earth alloy

Existence of tension–compression yield asymmetry is a serious limitation to the load bearing capablities of Magnesium alloys in a number of light weight structural applications.The present work is aimed at nullifying the tension to compression asymmetry problem and strain hardening anomalies in a Magnesium–Silver–Rare Earth alloy by engineering different levels of microstructural conditions via friction stir processing and post process annealing.The existence and extent of yield asymmetry ratio in the range of microstructural conditions was experimentally obtained through quasistatic tensile and compression tests.The yield asymmetry problem was profoundly present in specimens of coarse grained microstructures when compared to their fine grained and ultra fine grained counterparts.The impact of the microstructure and associated mechanisms of plasticity on the macroscopic strain hardening behavior was established by Kock–Mecking’s analysis.Crystal plasticity simulations using Viscoplastic Self Consistency approach revealed the consequential role of extension twinning mechanism for the existence of yield asymmetry and anomalies in strain hardening behavior.This was especially dominant with coarsening of grain size.Electron Microscopy and characterization were conducted thoroughly in partially deformed specimens to confirm the predictions of the above simulations.The role of crystallographic texture for inducing the polarity to Tension–Compression yield asymmetry was corroborated.A critical grain size in Magnesium–Silver–Rare earth alloy was hereby established which could nullify influences of extension twinning in yield asymmetry ratio.

One-dimensional large-strain consolidation of soft clay with non-Darcian flow and nonlinear compression and permeability of soil

Geometrical nonlinearity of the soft soil and the deviation of water flow in the soft clay from Darcy's law have been well recognized in practice. However, the theory of consolidation, which can account for both the geometrical nonlinearity and the non-Darcian flow, has not been reported so far. In this contribution, a model for the consolidation of soft clay which can allow for these two factors simultaneously is proposed. Utilizing the finite difference method, the numerical model for this problem is developed. With the numerical model, the effects of the geometrical nonlinearity and the non-Darcian flow on the consolidation of the soft soil are investigated. The results show that when the self-weight stress is calculated by the same method, the rate of the non-Darcian consolidation for the large-strain case is larger than that for the small-strain case, but the difference between them is limited. However, the difference between the consolidation rates caused by the non-Darcian and Darcian flows is significant. Therefore, when the geometrical nonlinearity of the soft clay is considered in calculating the consolidation settlement, due to the complexity of the large-strain assumption, the small-strain assumption can be used to replace it if the self-weight stress for the small-strain assumption is calculated by considering its sedimentation. However, due to the aforementioned large difference between the consolidation rates with consideration of the non-Darcian flow in soft clay or not, it is better to consider the non-Darcian flow law for both the small and large stain assumptions.

Stress-strain behavior of plastic concrete using monotonic triaxial compression tests

The mechanical behavior of plastic concrete used in the cut-off walls of earth dams has been studied.Triaxial compression tests on the specimens in various ages and mix designs under different confining pressures have been done and the stress-strain behavior of such materials and their strength parameter changes have been experimentally investigated.It has been observed that increasing the confining pressures applied on the specimens causes the material behavior to be alike the more ductile materials and the compressive strength increases considerably as well.Moreover,a parametric study has been carried out to investigate the influence of essential parameters on the shear strength parameters of these materials.According to the research,increasing the coarse to fine aggregates ratio leads to the increase of compressive strength of the specimens as well as the increase of the cohesion and internal friction angle of the materials.Furthermore,the bentonite content decrease and the cement factor increase result in an increase of the cohesion parameter of plastic concretes and decrease of the internal friction angle of such materials.