A justice and innovative way ahead of consumption-based emission accounting approach

Carbon emission accounting is an important basis for global climate governance.Based on the consumption-based accounting(CBA)method,the characteristics of carbon flow between national,regional,and product processes could be more clearly reflected.Therefore,CBA is more conducive to clarifying the attribution of responsibilities between producers and consumers,with the principles of fairness and justice.By accounting for carbon emissions in typical countries from 1990 to 2019,we found that the CBA emissions are higher than the production-based accounting(PBA)emissions in major developed countries,while the results are reversed for developing countries.In the past 30 years,the CBA emissions in targeted developed countries generally have shown a downward trend,while in developing countries,they have shown an upward trend.CBA emissions in China have shown a continuous growth trend from 1990 to 2019,but the pace has slowed down significantly over the last decade.Meanwhile,the embodied carbon intensity of China’s exports continues to decline,indicating that China is providing more green and low-carbon products to the world.Taking the PV industry as an example,this study further reveals the contribution of specific product industries to the country’s carbon transfer through product carbon footprint analysis.In order to provide a scientific basis for global mitigation and climate governance,it is urgent to innovate a scientific,practical,and standardized CBA technology system.

CONSUMPTION-BASED AND EMBODIED CARBON IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT:IMPLICATIONS FOR APEC’S LOW-CARBON MODEL TOWN PROJECT

In accordance with international protocols and directions,the APEC Energy Working Group has concentrated on constraining operational energy use and greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions in cities across the Asia Pacific,especially from the widespread consumption of fossil fuels.In addition to economy level policies and recognising the different characteristics within the region,APEC has sought to take action at the town/city level via the Low-Carbon Model Town(LCMT)project,including the development of self-assessment tools and indicator systems.However,the“low carbon”landscape is changing.There is increasing recognition of embodied carbon,accompanied by the emergence of methods for its measurement,while the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group has recently highlighted the significance of consumption-based carbon.Similarly,the Greenhouse Gas Protocol for Cities(GPC)is likely to extend its ambit from Scope 1 GHG emissions,derived from energy use within a city boundaries,and Scope 2 emissions from grid-supplied electricity,heating and/or cooling,to Scope 3 emissions derived from materials and goods produced outside the boundaries of a city but associated with construction within that city.After describing these emerging approaches and the current landscape,the paper examines the significance and implications of these changes for APEC approaches,especially in relation to the LCMT project,its indicators and the varying characteristics of towns and cities within the Asia-Pacific region.Special attention is given to the built environment,which is known to be a major contributor to operational and embod-ied emissions.Consistent with the theme of the Asia-Pacific Energy Sustainable Development Forum covering“sustainable development of energy and the city,”a case is put forward for the current APEC approach to be extended to encompass both embodied and consumption-based emissions.

Consumption-based Carbon Emissions and International Carbon Leakage: An Analysis Based on the WIOD Database

The worldwide increase in consumption levels is a major cause of the dramatic rise in greenhouse gas （GHG） emissions. A thorough understanding of the dynamics of consumption-based carbon emissions and the factors influencing it would facilitate the design of climate policies. This article employs data in the multi-regional input-output tables and on sectoral carbon emissions from the World Input-Output Database （WIOD） to develop a multi-regional input-out （MR/O） model, setting up a consumption-based carbon emission accounting inventory and analyzing global consumption-based carbon emissions and the spillover effects of international carbon emissions. The results show that global consumption- based carbon emissions in 2009 were 28850 Mt, of which about 20 percent were embodied in international trade. A large part of these emissions derived from production in and exportsfrom China and the region comprising Brazil, Russia, India, Indonesia, Australia and Turkey （BRIIAT）, production and exports which were consumed in NAFTA and the Eurozone. If the factor of intemational trade is taken into consideration, the inter-regional gap in carbon emission intensity narrows, ranging from 2.4 t （BRIIAT） to 14.7 t （NAFTA） consumption-based emissions per capita. Whereas embodied imported carbon accounted for 33 percent and 17 percent in NAFTA and the Eurozone respectively, 29 percent of China＇s carbon emissions were caused by the consumption of other countries. Therefore, setting up a consumption-based carbon emission accounting inventory has become increasingly important for international climate negotiations. Moreover, allocating responsibility for carbon emissions between the producer and the consumer will help change the existing mode of consumption and promote emission reduction.

Asymmetric nexus between commercial policies and consumption‑based carbon emissions:new evidence from Pakistan

The current study extends the previous literature by exploring the effects of a newly discovered driver,i.e.,import taxes(as a proxy for commercial policies),on the consumption-based carbon emissions(CCO2e)for 1990Q1-2017Q4.For empirical analysis,several tests and methods,including Augmented Dickey–Fuller unit root test,Zivot–Andrews unit root test,asymmetric cointegration bound testing approach,non-linear ARDL,Wald-test,Granger causality test and wavelet quantile correlation(WQC)method are utilized.Furthermore,NARDL technique estimates reveal that contractionary commercial policy enhances the environmental quality by disrupting the detrimental effects of CCO2e.However,expansionary commercial policy escalates the environmental pollution by boosting the carbon emissions.Also,the exports and the renewable energy improve the ecological quality;however,GDP deteriorates the atmospheric quality by increasing the CCO2e.Besides,WQC method and the trivariate Granger causality test are deployed to confirm the robustness of the results.Based on the findings,some crucial policies are also recommended for sustainable and green development in Pakistan.

An econometrical analysis of final consumption and carbon emissions responsibilities

The deepening of international specialization and the variation among nations' consumption patterns have become focal issues in allocating carbon emissions responsibilities among nations in climate negotiation.This paper represents an attempt to measure nations' carbon emissions responsibilities based on their final consumption and to calculate each nation's quantity and share of greenhouse gas emissions based on final consumption using a dynamic computable general equilibrium(CGE) model.An econometrical analysis finds that consumption rather than production is mainly to blame for fast-growing greenhouse gas emissions and worsening climate change trends.Global warming has been exacerbated due to developed countries' global resource allocation in a bid to maintain their high consumption levels.Therefore,it is more fair and equitable to assign emissions reduction responsibilities among nations based on their share of consumption-based emissions.

Interprovincial transfer of embodied air pollution in China

This study uses a multi-regional input-output model to measure the consumption-based transfer of embodied air pollution across provinces in China.Revised direct exhaust emissions are compared under regional and industrial standards to reveal the static volume distribution and dynamic transfer paths.The results show that China is characterized by a net inflow of atmospheric pollution pressure.The amount of interprovincial transfer exhibits a two-level divergence.The distribution of net outflow areas exhibits a certain degree of dispersion and uniformity,whereas net inflow areas exhibit local agglomeration.The main transfer paths are from east to west and south to north.Eastern coastal areas are the primary source of embodied pollution transfer,whereas northern coastal areas and the middle reaches of the Yellow River account for the primary concentrations of pollution inflows.The proportion of major industry contributions approximately conforms to the Pareto principle;different resource endowments may provide comparative advantages and thus distinct distributions.

Tracking embodied carbon flows in the Belt and Road regions

In the past few decades, economic globalization has driven rapid growth of cross-border trade and a new international division of labor, leading to increasing inter-country embodied carbon flows. Multi-region input-output(MRIO) analysis is used to identify embodied carbon flows between major world regions, including seven regions along the Belt and Road(BR), and the spatial distribution of production-and consumption-based carbon intensities. The results show that current embodied carbon flows are virtually all from BR regions to developed countries, with more than 95% of world net embodied carbon exports coming from BR regions. Consumption in the United States and European Union countries induce about 30% of the carbon emissions in most BR regions, indicating that the former bear a high proportion of consumers' responsibility for the carbon emitted in the latter. For this reason, measuring environmental responsibilities from consumption rather than a production-based perspective is more equitable, while developing countries should be given a louder voice in the construction through dialogue and cooperation, in part in the context of the Belt and Road Initiative, of an inclusive global climate governance system.

Analysis on CO2 Emissions Transferred from Developed Economies to China through Trade

Based on a global input-output model, this paper investigates the CO2 emission transfer between China and developed economies through trade. The results show that approximately 15-23 percent of China＇s production-based emissions during 1995-2009 were induced by the production of goods and services satisfying final demand in developed economies. Decomposition of emission transfers shows that trade of intermediate products played a significant role in emission transfer from developed economies to China. Most developed economies have consumption-based emission responsibilities that are higher than their production-based responsibilities, whereas China＇s consumption-based responsibility is significantly lower than its production-based responsibility. We argue that a fair and efficient carbon accounting approach should take CO 2 emission transfers from developed economies to developing economies into consideration. It is important that China and its developed trade partners cooperate in reducing emission transfers.

Multi-regional input-output analysis for China＇s regional CH4 emissions

China is the largest CH4 emitter in the world. Given the importance of CH4 in greenhouse gas emission inventories, the characteristics ofChina＇s CH4 emissions at different scales deserve to be fully understood. Presented in this paper is an interprovincial input output embodi- ment analysis of China＇s regional CH4 emissions in 2007, based on the most recently available multi-regional input- output table, and relevant CH4 emissions data. The results show that the eastern, central and western areas contribute to 48.2%, 28.6%, and 23.3% of the national total embodied emissions, respectively. Guangdong has the highest level of embodied CH4 emissions among all of the 30 regions. The Agriculture sector produces the most embodied CH4 emissions in final demand, followed by the Construction, Food Production and Tobacco Processing, and Other Service Activities sectors. Significant net transfers of embodied CH4 emission flows are identified from the central and western areas to the eastern area via interregional trade. Shanxi is the largest interregional exporter of embodied CH4 emissions. In contrast, Guangdong is the largest interregional importer. Energy activities, agricultural activities, and waste management comprise 65.6%, 30.7%, and 3.7% of the total embodied CH4 emissions in interregional trade, respectively. By using consumption-based accounting principles, the emis- sion magnitudes, per capita emissions, and emission intensities of most eastern regions increase remarkably, while those of some central and western regions decrease largely. To achieve regional CH4 emission mitigation, comprehensive mitigation measures should be designed under consideration of regional transfer of emission responsibility.

A global analysis of CO_(2)and non-CO_(2)GHG emissions embodied in trade with Belt and Road Initiative countries

Introduction:The Belt and Road Initiative(BRI)is an important cooperative framework that increasingly affects the global economy,trade,and emission patterns.However,most existing studies pay insufficient attention to consumption-based emissions,embodied emissions,and non-CO_(2) greenhouse gases(GHGs).This study constructs a GHG emissions database to study the trends and variations in production-based,consumption-based,and embodied emissions associated with BRI countries.Outcome:We find that the per capita GHG emissions of BRI countries are lower than the global average but show significant variation within this group.We also find that trade-embodied emissions between BRI countries and China are growing.As a group,BRI countries are anet exporter of GHGs,with a global share of net export emissions of about 20%.In 2011,nearly 80%of GHG export emissions from BRI countries flowed to non-BRI countries,and nearly 15%flowed to China;about 57%of GHG import emissions were from non-BRI countries,and about 38%were from China.Conclusion:Therefore,this study concludes that the BRI should be used to coordinate climate governance to accelerate and strengthen the dissemination and deployment of low-emissions technologies,strategies,and policies within the BRI so as to avoid a carbon-intensive lock-in effect.