Spatiotemporal variations of evapotranspiration and reference crop water requirement over 1957-2016 in Iran based on CRU TS gridded dataset

Agriculture needs to produce more food to feed the growing population in the 21st century.It makes the reference crop water requirement(WREQ)a major challenge especially in regions with limited water and high water demand.Iran,with large climatic variability,is experiencing a serious water crisis due to limited water resources and inefficient agriculture.In order to overcome the issue of uneven distribution of weather stations,gridded Climatic Research Unit(CRU)data was applied to analyze the changes in potential evapotranspiration(PET),effective precipitation(EFFPRE)and WREQ.Validation of data using in situ observation showed an acceptable performance of CRU in Iran.Changes in PET,EFFPRE and WREQ were analyzed in two 30-a periods 1957-1986 and 1987-2016.Comparing two periods showed an increase in PET and WREQ in regions extended from the southwest to northeast and a decrease in the southeast,more significant in summer and spring.However,EFFPRE decreased in the southeast,northeast,and northwest,especially in winter and spring.Analysis of annual trends revealed an upward trend in PET(14.32 mm/decade)and WREQ(25.50 mm/decade),but a downward trend in EFFPRE(-11.8 mm/decade)over the second period.Changes in PET,EFFPRE and WREQ in winter have the impact on the annual trend.Among climate variables,WREQ showed a significant correlation(r=0.59)with minimum temperature.The increase in WREQ and decrease in EFFPRE would exacerbate the agricultural water crisis in Iran.With all changes in PET and WREQ,immediate actions are needed to address the challenges in agriculture and adapt to the changing climate.

Investigation of crop evapotranspiration and irrigation water requirement in the lower Amu Darya River Basin, Central Asia

High water consumption and inefficient irrigation management in the agriculture sector of the middle and lower reaches of the Amu Darya River Basin(ADRB)have significantly influenced the gradual shrinking of the Aral Sea and its ecosystem.In this study,we investigated the crop water consumption in the growing seasons and the irrigation water requirement for different crop types in the lower ADRB during 2004–2017.We applied the FAO Penman–Monteith method to estimate reference evapotranspiration(ET0)based on daily climatic data collected from four meteorological stations.Crop evapotranspiration(ETc)of specific crop types was calculated by the crop coefficient.Then,we analyzed the net irrigation requirement(NIR)based on the effective precipitation with crop water requirements.The results indicated that the lowest monthly ET0 values in the lower ADRB were found in December(18.2 mm)and January(16.0 mm),and the highest monthly ET0 values were found in June and July,with similar values of 211.6 mm.The annual ETc reached to 887.2,1002.1,and 492.0 mm for cotton,rice,and wheat,respectively.The average regional NIR ranged from 514.9 to 715.0 mm in the 10 Irrigation System Management Organizations(UISs)in the study area,while the total required irrigation volume for the whole region ranged from 4.2×109 to 11.6×109 m3 during 2004–2017.The percentages of NIR in SIW(surface irrigation water)ranged from 46.4%to 65.2%during the study period,with the exceptions of the drought years of 2008 and 2011,in which there was a significantly less runoff in the Amu Darya River.This study provides an overview for local water authorities to achieve optimal regional water allocation in the study area.

Crop water requirements of major crops indryland of northern China

The concept of crop water requirements is discussed, based on which the calculation modelof crop water requirements is established. In light with crop, soil and meteorological data. the cropwater requirements of major crops in sub-humid and send-arid dryland farming areas of northernChina. including wheat maize , cotton. millet, soybean, sweet potato and potato, are calculated, andthe patterns of crop water requirements of these crops are revealed and discussed in this paper.

Implications of future climate change on crop and irrigation water requirements in a semi-arid river basin using CMIP6 GCMs

Agriculture faces risks due to increasing stress from climate change,particularly in semi-arid regions.Lack of understanding of crop water requirement(CWR)and irrigation water requirement(IWR)in a changing climate may result in crop failure and socioeconomic problems that can become detrimental to agriculture-based economies in emerging nations worldwide.Previous research in CWR and IWR has largely focused on large river basins and scenarios from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 3(CMIP3)and Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5(CMIP5)to account for the impacts of climate change on crops.Smaller basins,however,are more susceptible to regional climate change,with more significant impacts on crops.This study estimates CWRs and IWRs for five crops(sugarcane,wheat,cotton,sorghum,and soybean)in the Pravara River Basin(area of 6537 km^(2))of India using outputs from the most recent Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6(CMIP6)General Circulation Models(GCMs)under Shared Socio-economic Pathway(SSP)245 and SSP585 scenarios.An increase in mean annual rainfall is projected under both scenarios in the 2050s and 2080s using ten selected CMIP6 GCMs.CWRs for all crops may decline in almost all of the CMIP6 GCMs in the 2050s and 2080s(with the exceptions of ACCESS-CM-2 and ACCESS-ESM-1.5)under SSP245 and SSP585 scenarios.The availability of increasing soil moisture in the root zone due to increasing rainfall and a decrease in the projected maximum temperature may be responsible for this decline in CWR.Similarly,except for soybean and cotton,the projected IWRs for all other three crops under SSP245 and SSP585 scenarios show a decrease or a small increase in the 2050s and 2080s in most CMIP6 GCMs.These findings are important for agricultural researchers and water resource managers to implement long-term crop planning techniques and to reduce the negative impacts of climate change and associated rainfall variability to avert crop failure and agricultural losses.

Water Requirements of Sugar Beet Beta vulgaris under Heavy Cracking Clay Soils

Crop coefficients （Kc） of sugar beet were determined for accurate calculation of water requirements （CWR） and better irrigation water management. Three irrigation treatments were used during two seasons to measure actual crop water use （ETc） under no soil stress treatment using gravimetric sampling. In the second season （SS）, the method was modified to target 8 temporal points during crop growth for smooth calculation of ETc under sufficient moisture supply to avoid the distortion that was created by the continuous gravimetric sampling after, before and during each irrigation cycle on the experimental plots. Water was stopped when each targeted sampling point was reached using large plots where intensive sampling continues until the crop reaches severe water stress or permanent wilting point （PWP）. The actual crop water use was extracted from the soil moisture depletion curve which allowed the identification of two clear segments. The first segment indicated crop water use during no water stress while the change of the slope indicated the beginning of the water stress. The reference crop evapotranspiration （ET0） was determined on daily basis using appropriate weather data that coincides with the ETc measurement and consequently the crop Kc were calculated. The results showed that the method used during the SS is easy and provides a better understanding of actual crop water use and better estimation of crop Kc. The calculated 10-day Kc values for sugar beet under heavy cracking clay soil conditions were： 0.46, 0.49, 0.53 and 0.60; for the initial stage： 0.69, 0.78, 0.88 and 0.97; for the development stage： 1.05, 1.11, 1.13, 1.11 and 1.04; for mid-season stage and for late season stage： 0.92, 0.74 and 0.60. Yield and other sugar related parameters were also presented for the two seasons.

Assessing Crop Water Demand and Deficit for the Growth of Spring Highland Barley in Tibet, China

The aim of this study was to assess the crop water demand and deficit of spring highland barley and discuss suitable irrigation systems for different regions in Tibet, China. Long-term trends in reference crop evapotranspiration and crop water demand were analyzed in different regions, together with crop water demand and deficit of spring highland barley under different precipitation frequencies. Results showed that precipitation trends during growth stages did not benefit the growth of spring highland barley. The crop coefficient of spring highland barley in Tibet was 0.87 and crop water demand was 389.0 ram. In general, a water deficit was found in Tibet, because precipitation was lower than water consumption of spring highland barley. The most severe water deficit were in the jointing to heading stage and the heading to wax ripeness stage, which are the most important growth stages for spring highland barley; water deficit in these two stages would be harmful to the yield. Water deficit showed different characteristics in different regions. In conclusion, irrigation systems may be more successful if based on an analysis of water deficit within different growth stages and in different regions.

Climate-induced Changes in Spring Maize Water Requirement in Xiliaohe River Watershed

Xiliaohe River watershed plays an important role in regional and national grain security.With the development of society and economy,water consumption that increased dramatically causes water shortages.Crop water requirement can provide quantitative basis for making regional irrigation scheme.In this study,spring maize water requirement is calculated by using PenmanMonteith formula and spring maize coefficient from May to September at 10 meteorological stations in Xiliaohe River watershed from 1951 to 2005.The variation trend of the spring maize water requirement during the whole growing stage,water requirement in every month,and meteorological influencing factors are obtained by using Mann-Kendall method,and the degree of grey incidence between the water requirement and meteorological influencing factors are shown.The results are the spring maize water requirement during the whole growing stages increases at half of the stations in Xiliaohe River watershed,and are remarkably affected by the water requirement in May.The monthly mean,maximum and minimum air temperature form May to September show an increasing trend in Xiliaohe River watershed in recent 55 years.The monthly mean and minimum air temperature increases notably.The relative humidity,precipitation,wind speed and sunshine show a decreasing trend with variety for different months.The monthly maximum air temperature,wind speed,sunshine and monthly mean air temperature have the highest correlation degree with spring maize water requirement from May to September.

Study on Rice Water Requirement of Liangping County under Climate Change Background

Under global climate change background,using daily meteorological data at Liangping ground meteorological station during 1961- 2012,we calculated crop water requirement and net irrigation water requirement during rice growth period in Liangping County,and analyzed its climate tendency rate. Results showed that climate tendency rate of crop water requirement during growth period of rice was only- 0. 007 mm /10 a; climate tendency rate of rainfall was- 0. 06 mm /10 a,but interannual change was relatively larger; climate tendency rate of net irrigation water requirement was 0. 011 mm /10 a. In the years when drought occurred,such as 2006 and 2011,both rice water requirement and net irrigation water requirement in Liangping were greatly higher than means over the years. Therefore,we should focus on drought pre-warning and risk management improving drought disaster prevention in Liangping in the future.

Evaluation of Actual Evapotranspiration and Crop Coefficient in Carrot by Remote Sensing Methodology Using Drainage and River Water to Overcome Reduced Water Availability

Searching for alternative methods for traditional irrigation is World trend at days due to a reduction in water and increased of drought due to climate changes therefore farmers need use modern methods of scheduling water and minimizing water losses while also increasing yield. To meet the future increasing demands water and food there is a need to utilize alternative methods to reduce evaporation, transpiration and deep percolation of water. Any countries use recycled water (drain and sewage) and desalination water from the sea or drains to irrigate crops plus computing actual crop evapotranspiration (ETc) so as to calculate the amount of water to apply to a crop. The paper aims to assess the actual evaporation and evaporation coefficient of carrots, by planting carrots in a field and the crop was exposed to several sources of water (DW and RW) and comparing ETc, Kc and production among plots of three sites (A, B and C). The study used two types of irrigation water (drain water (DW) and river water (RW)). The results were to monthly rate and accumulated actual evapotranspiration to C (irrigation by RW only) more than A (67% RW and 33% DW) and B (17% RW and 83% DW) via 7% and 58%, respectively. The yield to C more than A and B by 17% and 75%, respectively. In conclusion the use of DW can cause a reduction in crop consumptive of carrot crops also causes a reduction in yield, crop length, root length, root size, canopy of crop, number of leaves and biomass of the plant therefore, the drainage water needs to treated before irrigating crops And making use of it to irrigate the fields and fill the shortfall in the amount of water from the river. The drain water helped on filling the water shortage due to climate changes and giving production of carrot crop but less than river water.

Field water surplus and deficit of major crops in dryland of northern China

The definition and classification of field evapotranspiration was discussed, based on which the calculation model for field evapotranspiration was established. Based on crop, soil measurements and mean climatic data in 1950-1980, mean field water surplus or deficit on climatic, crop and cropland basis in dryland of northern China was calculated, and the pattern of field water surplus or deficit was analyzed and discussed in this paper.

Effect of future climate change on the water footprint of major crops in southern Tajikistan

Danghara,a major food production area in southern Tajikistan,is currently suffering from the impact of rapid climate change and intensive human activities.Assessing the future impact of climate change on crop water requirements(CWRs)for the current growing period and defining the optimal sowing date to reduce future crop water demand are essential for local/regional water and food planning.Therefore,this study attempted to analyze possible future climate change effects on the water requirements of major crops using the statistical downscaling method in the Danghara District to simulate the future temperature and precipitation for two future periods(2021-2050 and 2051-2080),under three representative concentration pathways(RCP2.6,RCP4.5,and RCP8.5)according to the CanESM2 global climate model.The water footprint(WFP)of major crops was calculated as a measure of their CWRs.The increased projection of precipitation and temperature probably caused an increase in the main crop’s WFP for the current growing period,which was mainly due to the green water(GW)component in the long term and a decrease in the blue water(BW)component during the second future period,except for cotton,where all components were predicted to remain stable.Under three scenarios for the two future potato and winter wheat decreased from 5.7%to 4.8%and 3.4%to 2.2%,respectively.Although the WFP of cotton demonstrated a stable increase,according to the optimal sowing date,adecrease in irrigation demand or Bw was expected.The results of our study might be useful fordeveloping a new strategy related to irrigation systems and could help to find a balance betweenwater and food for environmental water demands and human use.

基于遥感ET数据的区域水资源状况及典型农作物耗水分析

以遥感ET及实测降水数据为基础,借助GIS技术开展水分盈亏分析研究;同时依据项目区土地利用现状,选择冬小麦、夏玉米、棉花及人工草坪为重点分析对象,对其耗水及灌溉耗水规律进行研究。结果表明:①大兴区耗水量与降水量在总量上不平衡,时空上不匹配,在现状土地利用下若无外来水补充,则不得不超采地下水,资源型缺水突出。②冬小麦和夏玉米耗水年际变化不大,而棉花及人工草坪随降水增加耗水增大;分析作物耗水与降水的吻合性发现,冬小麦耗水与降水匹配性最差,其次为人工草坪,而夏玉米及棉花耗水与降水匹配较好。③在所选择的4种作物中小麦灌溉耗水量最大,达230 mm以上;其次为人工草坪,其灌溉耗水量超过189 mm;夏玉米及棉花灌溉耗水量较小。

基于CROPWAT模型的玉米水分盈亏及灌溉制度研究

为研究黑龙江省中部地区玉米生育期内需水量、水分盈亏指数(CWSDI)、干旱等级变化和不同水文年灌溉制度,基于哈尔滨市1955-2014年气象数据、土壤数据和玉米作物参数,利用CROPWAT模型计算玉米生育期内需水量、有效降雨量和灌溉需水量,计算水分盈亏指数并划分干旱等级,采用Mann-Kendall趋势检验分析以上因素变化趋势,针对不同典型水文年制定灌溉制度。结果表明,该地区1955-2014年生育期内玉米需水量以9.41 mm/10 a的速率下降;丰水年、平水年,枯水年和特枯水年需水量分别为407.80、423.80、452.00和485.60 mm;多年平均CWSDI没有明显变化,生育期内每月CWSDI变化较为明显,干旱等级分析表明在玉米生长初期和生长后期较干旱;不同水文年干旱情况不同,除丰水年外,有效降雨量均难以满足玉米生育期内需水量,不同典型水文年应建立不同的灌溉制度。特枯水年、枯水年和平水年的灌水净定额分别为151.30、117.10和39.70 mm。

基于ET_0冬小麦需水量计算及其规律

选取豫东平原安阳、西华、信阳、许昌、郑州、驻马店等地冬小麦为研究对象,采用作物系数法计算了ET0频率25%、50%和75%条件下各地冬小麦需水量并进行分析。结果表明,安阳、许昌、郑州、驻马店冬小麦全生育期需水量呈现出湿润年较低、干旱年较高的趋势,最大值介于396.1～729.0mm。各地冬小麦需水量最大的生育阶段均为抽穗-成熟,平均占全生育期需水量45.9%;西华、郑州该生育阶段需水量占全生育期百分比随ET0频率增大而上升,呈现为相对干旱年份需水更多。豫东平原各地冬小麦逐日需水量10-2月均值随ET0频率增大而下降,3月往后上升,其均值为4.31mm/d。ET0频率25%～50%范围对10-3月逐日需水量影响较大。

不同ET_0频率夏玉米需水特性分析

以豫东地区安阳、西华、信阳、许昌、郑州、驻马店等地夏玉米为研究对象，采用Penman-Monteith法计算了ET0频率25％、50％和75％条件下夏玉米需水量并进行分析。结果表明，安阳、信阳、郑州、驻马店夏玉米全生育期需水量呈现出湿润年较低、干旱年较高的趋势，最大值介于450．3～477．7mm。各地夏玉米需水量最大的生育阶段均为拔节和灌浆期，信阳、许昌灌浆期需水量平均占全生育期29．2％、37．O％，信阳该生育阶段需水量占全生育期百分比随ETo频率增大而上升，呈现为相对干旱年份需水更多。7月中旬至8月的日需水均值随频率的增大而增大，平均5．52mm/d；9月往后日需水均值随ET0频率的增大而下降，平均3．69mm/d。

T-ET函数法作物需水规律和灌溉制度模型研究

以阿克苏苜蓿灌溉制度制定为例进行了研究,利用Penman-Monteith公式,通过建立作物生长天数与作物需水量的函数T-ET,构建了T-ET函数法作物灌溉制度模型。结果显示:采用32#喷嘴,射程20m,流量4.71 m3/h,有效控制面积315 m2,灌溉强度14.95 mm/h的喷灌设计,通过计算,该地区苜蓿年灌溉次数为25次,设计灌溉总量为750mm。结论表明通过灌溉制度模型可以快速地得到该地区苜蓿的需水规律和相应灌溉制度,该方法对于缺乏灌溉实验资料的区域及作物,简捷地制定出较合理的灌溉制度,具有较强的实用性。

柳园口灌区作物ET_0变化及节水灌溉模式研究

为了研究黄河下游灌区作物需水量变化规律,以柳园口灌区为例,采用国际上通用的Penman公式,分析研究主要参考作物的需水量变化情况,并结合引黄河水流量与含沙量的变化特点,探讨了灌区节水灌溉模式。研究表明:柳园口灌区ET_0呈近年来处于稳定态势,整体略有下降,主要农作物受生长季节和生育周期的限制,棉花生育期需水量大于小麦,小麦的需水量大于玉米。结合黄河来水来沙分布情况,引导灌区适时使用引黄灌溉和井灌的灌溉模式,充分发挥有限水资源的最大效益。

基于AquaCrop模型的玉米需水和降水匹配度变化特征研究

雨热同期为我国大部分地区农业生产提供了充足的水热资源,但从需水机理的角度评估作物生长和降水过程匹配度的变化特征还有待深入。基于AquaCrop模型模拟了关中地区1978-2017年夏玉米生育期内需水量、灌溉需水量、有效降水量和产量的变化特征,并在充分考虑玉米不同生育阶段对水分需求程度差异的基础上,分析了作物需水与降水匹配度的变化特征。结果表明:关中地区玉米生育期内累积降雨量变化幅度相对较小,但降水过程明显后移,且更多的以暴雨的形式发生;玉米生育期内需水量和灌溉需水量均呈现明显的增加趋势,增加幅度分别为4.10 mm/10a和13.38 mm/10a,而有效降水量则以-10.28 mm/10a的速率减小;玉米生育期内需水与降水的平均匹配度为58%,且整体以-2.7%/10a的速率下降。上述结果表明关中地区降水模式越来越难以满足夏玉米的水分需求,延迟播种可作为提高作物需水与降水匹配度的应对措施之一。

Calculation and Simulation of Evapotranspiration of Applied Water

The University of California, Davis and the California Department of Water Resources have developed a weather generator application program “SIMETAW” to simulate weather data from climatic records and to estimate reference evapotranspiration （ETo） and crop evapotranspiration （ETc） with the generated simulation data or with observed data. A database of default soil depth and water holding characteristics, effective crop rooting depths, and crop coefficient （Kc） values to convert ETo to ETc are input into the program. After calculating daily ETc, the input and derived data are used to determine effective rainfall and to generate hypothetical irrigation schedules to estimate the seasonal and annual evapotranspiration of applied water （ETaw）, where ETaw is the net amount of irrigation water needed to produce a crop. in this paper, we will discuss the simulation model and how it determines ETaw for use in water resources planning.

California Simulation of Evapotranspiration of Applied Water and Agricultural Energy Use in California

The California Simulation of Evapotranspiration of Applied Water （CaI-SIMETAW） model is a new tool developed by the California Department of Water Resources and the University of California, Davis to perform daily soil water balance and determine crop evapotranspiration （ETo）, evapotranspiration of applied water （ETaw）, and applied water （AW） for use in California water resources planning. ETaw is a seasonal estimate of the water needed to irrigate a crop assuming 100% irrigation efficiency. The model accounts for soils, crop coefficients, rooting depths, seepage, etc. that influence crop water balance. It provides spatial soil and climate information and it uses historical crop and land-use category information to provide seasonal water balance estimates by combinations of detailed analysis unit and county （DAU/County） over Califomia. The result is a large data base of ETc and ETaw that will be used to update information in the new California Water Plan （CWP）. The application uses the daily climate data, i.e., maximum （Tx） and minimum （Tn） temperature and precipitation （Pcp）, which were derived from monthly USDA-NRCS PRISM data （PRISM Group 2011） and daily US National Climate Data Center （NCDC） climate station data to cover California on a 4 kmx4 km change grid spacing. The application uses daily weather data to determine reference evapotranspiration （ETo）, using the Hargreaves-Samani （HS） equation （Hargreaves and Samani 1982, 1985）. Because the HS equation is based on temperature only, ETo from the HS equation were compared with CIMIS ETo at the same locations using available CIMIS data to determine correction factors to estimate CIMIS ETo from the HS ETo to account for spatial climate differences. CaI-SIMETAW also employs near real-time reference evapotranspiration （ETo） information from Spatial CIMIS, which is a model that combines weather station data and remote sensing to provide a grid of ETo information. A second database containing the available soil water holding capacity and soil depth information for all of California was also developed from the USDA-NRCS SSURGO database. The Cal-SIMETAW program also has the ability to generate daily weather data from monthly mean values for use in studying climate change scenarios and their possible impacts on water demand in the state. The key objective of this project is to improve the accuracy of water use estimates for the California Water Plan （CWP）, which provides a comprehensive report on water supply, demand, and management in California. In this paper, we will discuss the model and how it determines ETaw for use in water resources planning.