Effect of Cryogenic Treatment on Microstructure and Tribological Property Evolution of Electron Beam Melted Ti6Al4V

Cryogenic treatment was used to improve the tribological properties of Ti6Al4V artificial hip joint implants.Cryogenic treatment at-196℃with different holding time were carried out on Ti6Al4V specimens fabricated using electron beam melting(EBM),and their microstructure and tribological properties evolution were systematically analyzed by scanning electron microscopy(SEM),vickers hardness,and wear tests.The experimental results show that the as-fabricated specimen consists of lamellarαphase andβcolumnar crystal.While,the thickness of lamellarαphase decreased after cryogenic treatment.In addition,it can be found that the fineαphase was precipitated and dispersed between the lamellarαphase with the holding time increase.Vickers hardness shows a trend of first increasing and then decreasing.The wear rate of the specimen cryogenic treated for 24 h is the minimum and the average friction coefficient is 0.50,which is reduced by 14.61%compared with the as-fabricated.The wear mechanism of the as-fabricated specimen is severe exfoliation,adhesive,abrasive,and slight fatigue wear.However,the specimen cryogenic treated for 24 h shows slight adhesive and abrasive wear.It can be concluded that it is feasibility of utilizing cryogenic treatment to reduce the wear of EBMed Ti6Al4V.

Effect of deep cryogenic treatment on the microstructural,mechanical and ballistic properties of AA7075-T6 aluminum alloy

The study focused on investigating the effect of Deep Cryogenic Treatment(DCT)on the mechanical and ballistic properties of AA7075-T6 aluminum alloy.The microstructure,microhardness,tensile strength,and impact strength of the Base Material(BM)and DCT-treated 7075 samples were analyzed through metallographic analysis and mechanical tests.The microstructure of the DCT-treated 7075 samples revealed fine grains and a distribution of secondary phase particles.The tensile strength,impact strength,and microhardness of DCT-treated samples increased by 7.41%,4%,and 9.68%,respectively,compared to the BM samples.The fractography analysis of the tensile samples showed cleavage facets,microvoids,and dimples in both the samples.The ballistic behavior of the BM and DCT target plates were studied by impacting hard steel core projectiles at a velocity of 750±10 m/s.The target plates failed due to petaling and ductile hole enlargement,and the depth of penetration(DOP)of the DCT target was less than that of the BM target,indicating a higher ballistic resistance.The post-ballistic microstructure examination of the target plates showed the formation of an Adiabatic Shear Band(ASB)without any cracks.It was concluded that the DCT treatment improved the mechanical and ballistic properties of the aluminum alloy due to grain refinement and high dislocation density.

Tensile behavior of 3104 aluminum alloy processed by homogenization and cryogenic treatment

The mechanical properties of 3104 aluminum alloy processed by different combinations of cryogenic and homogenization treatments were studied. The 3104 aluminum alloy processed by the cryogenic treatment followed by homogenization exhibited an enhancement in the tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation by 29%, 41%, and 11%, respectively, as compared with a sample processed by the conventional homogenization treatment. The stress-strain curve of the sample processed by the homogenization treatment exhibited the Portevin-Le Chatelier effect, whereas the sample processed by the cryogenic treatment did not. Further, the cryogenic treatment could accelerate the precipitation of secondary phase particles for the sample processed by a deep cryogenic treatment, followed by a homogenization treatment, which enhanced the dislocation pinning effect of the solvent atoms and thus improved the critical strain.

Effects of deep cryogenic treatment on microstructure and properties of WC-11Co cemented carbides with various carbon contents

The effects of deep cryogenic treatment on the microstructure and properties of WC-11 Co cemented carbides with various carbon contents were investigated.The results show that after deep cryogenic treatment,WC grains are refined into triangular prism with sound edges via the process of spheroidization,but WC grain size has no evident change compared with that of untreated alloys.The phase transformation of Co phase from α-Co（FCC） to ε-Co（HCP） is observed in the cryogenically treated alloys,which is attributed to the decrease of W solubility in the binder（Co）.Deep cryogenic treatment enhances the hardness and bending strength of the alloys,while it has no significant effects on the density and cobalt magnetic performance.

FEM simulation and experimental verification of temperature field and phase transformation in deep cryogenic treatment

Combining with the low temperature material properties and the boiling heat transfer coefficient of specimen immersed in the liquid nitrogen, a numerical model based on metallo-thermo-mechanical couple theory was established to reproduce the deep cryogenic treatment （DCT） process of a newly developed cold work die steel Cr8Mo2SiV （SDC99）. Moreover, an experimental setup for rapid temperature measurement was designed to validate the simulation results. The investigation suggests that the differences in temperature and cooling rate between the surface and core of specimen are very significant. However, it should be emphasized that the acute temperature and cooling rate changes during DCT are mainly concentrated on the specimen surface region about 1/3 of the sample thickness. Subjected to DCT, the retained austenite of quenched specimen continues to transform to martensite and finally its phase volume fraction reduces to 2.3%. The predicted results are coincident well with the experimental data, which demonstrates that the numerical model employed in this study can accurately capture the variation characteristics of temperature and microstructure fields during DCT and provide a theoretical guidance for making the reasonable DCT procedure.

Effects of cryogenic treatment on the thermal physical properties of Cu_(76.12) Al_(23.88) alloy

The thermal diffusion coefficient, heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and thermal expansion coefficient of Cu76.12Al23.88 alloy before and after cryogenic treatment in the heating temperature range of 25℃ to 600℃ were measured by thermal constant tester and thermal expansion instrument. The effects of cryogenic treatment on the thermal physical properties of CU76,12A123,88 alloy were investigated by comparing the variation of the thermal parameters before and after cryogenic treatment. The results show that the variation trend of the thermal diffusion coefficient, heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and thermal expansion coefficient of CU76.12Al23.88 alloy after cryogenic treatment was the same as before. The cryogenic treatment can increase the thermal diffusion coefficient, thermal conductivity, and thermal expansion coeffi- cient of Cu76.12Al23.88 alloy and decrease its heat capacity. The maximum difference in the thermal diffusion coefficient between the before and after cryogenic treatment appeared at 400℃. Similarly, thermal conductivity was observed at 200℃.

Effect of Cryogenic Treatment on Property of 14Cr2Mn2V High Chromium Cast Iron Subjected to Subcritical Treatment

Effect of cryogenic treatment on the microstructure, hardening behavior and abrasion resistance of 14Cr2Mn2V high chromium cast iron （HCCI） subjected to subcritical treatment was investigated. The results show that cryogenic treatment after subcritical treatment can obviously improve the hardness and abrasion resistance of HCCI because abundant retained austenite is transformed into martensite and fine secondary carbides E（Fe, Cr）23 C6 ] precipitate. The amount of martensite and precipitated secondary carbide in HCCI experiencing subcritical treatment followed by cryogenic treatment was more than that experiencing the subcritical treatment followed by air cooling. When the abrasion resistance of HCCI reaches the maximum, its microstructure contains about 15 % retained austenite. Cryogenic treatment can further reduce the austenite content but the retained austenite cannot be transformed in to martensite completely.

Effects of cryogenic treatment on mechanical properties of extruded Mg-Gd-Y-Zr(Mn) alloys

The influence of cryogenic treatment on the mechanical properties of the extruded Mg-Gd-Y-Zr(Mn) alloys was investigated by the tensile tests, scanning electron microscopy(SEM), transmission electron microscopy(TEM), and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The results show that the mechanical properties of both alloys are improved greatly during the in situ tensile test by soaking the samples in liquid nitrogen for 10 min. The ultimate tensile strength, yield tensile strength and elongation of cryogenic treated magnesium alloy added with zirconium or manganese are largely elevated. And remarkable microstructure change is observed in both alloys by cryogenic treatment. There are a large number of twins,rod-like, tree-like and chrysanthemum-like precipitated phases in the microstructures and the fracture surfaces exhibit the characteristics of ductile rupture when they are observed at room temperature.

Effect of deep cryogenic treatment on the formation of nano-sized carbides and the wear behavior of D2 tool steel

The effect of deep cryogenic treatment on the microstructure, hardness, and wear behavior of D2 tool steel was studied by scanning electron microscopy （SEM）, transmission electron microscopy （TEM）, X-ray diffraction （XRD）, hardness test, pin-on-disk wear test, and the reciprocating pin-on-fiat wear test. The results show that deep cryogenic treatment eliminates retained austenite, makes a better carbide distribution, and increases the carbide content. Furthermore, some new nano-sized carbides form during the deep cryogenic treatment, thereby increasing the hardness and improving the wear behavior of the samples.

Numerical simulation of deep cryogenic treatment electrode tip temperature for spot welding aluminum alloy

Deep cryogenic treatment technology of electrodes is put forward to improve electrode life of resistance spot welding of aluminum alloy LF2. Deep cryogenic treatment makes electrode life for spot welding aluminum alloy improve. The specific resistivity of the deep cryogenic treatment electrodes is tested and experimental results show that specific resistivity is decreased sharply. The temperature field and the influence of deep cryogenic treatment on the electrode tip temperature during spot welding aluminium alloy is studied by numerical simulation method with the software ANSYS. The axisymmetric finite element model of mechanical, thermal and electrical coupled analysis of spot welding process is developed. The numerical simulation results show that the influence of deep cryogenic treatment on electrode tip temperature is very large.

Microstructure and mechanical properties of AZ91 magnesium alloy subject to deep cryogenic treatments

AZ91 magnesium alloy was subjected to a deep cryogenic treatment. X-ray diffraction （XRD）, scanning electronic microscopy （SEM）, and transmission electronic microscopy （TEM） methods were utilized to characterize the composition and microstructure of the treated samples. The results show that after two cryogenic treatments, the quantity of the precipitate hardening β phase increases, and the sizes of the precipitates are refined from 8-10μm to 2-4μm. This is expected to be due to the decreased solubility of aluminum in the matrix at low temperature and the significant plastic deformation owing to internal differences in thermal contraction between phases and grains. The polycrystalline matrix is also noticeably refined, with the sizes of the subsequent nanocrystalline grains in the range of 50-100 nm. High density dislocations are observed to pile up at the grain boundaries, inducing the dynamic recrystallization of the microstructure, leading to the generation of a nanocrystalline grain structure. After two deep cryogenic treatments, the tensile strength and elongation are found to be substantially increased, rising from 243 MPa and 4.4% of as-cast state to 299 MPa and 5.1%.

Effect of deep cryogenic treatment on mechanical behavior of a Cu-Cr-Zr alloy for electrodes of spot welding

The effects of deep cryogenic treatment on mechanical behavior of a Cu-Cr-Zr alloy for electrodes of spot welding were investigated employing Brinell-hardness testing unit, abrasion examination machine, electronic almighty testing machine and X-ray stress analyzer. Tensile fracture surfaces of the alloy were characterized by scanning electronic microscope （SEM） with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy （EDS）. The results showed that, after deep cryogenic treatment, σb and σ0.2 increased 23 MPa and 21 MPa respectively, the wear rate of the alloy exhibited the trend of decrease with the decreasing temperature and increasing time of deep cryogenic treatment, and the surface residual stress of the alloy was partially eliminated by deep cryogenic treatment.

Effect of deep cryogenic treatment on the properties of 80CrMo12 5 tool steel

The effect of deep cryogenic treatment on the mechanical properties of 80CrMo 12 5 tool steel was investigated. Moreover, the effects of stabilization （holding at room temperature for some periods before deep cryogenic treatment） and tempering before deep cryogenic treatment were studied. The results show that deep cryogenic treatment can eliminate the retained austenite, making a better carbide distribu- tion and a higher carbide amount. As a result, a remarkable improvement in wear resistance of cryogenically treated specimens is observed. Moreover, the ultimate tensile strength increases, and the toughness of the sample decreases. It is also found that both stabilization and tem- pering before deep cryogenic treatment decrease the wear resistance, hardness, and carbides homogeneity compared to the deep cryogeni- cally treated samples. It is concluded that deep cryogenic treatment should be performed without any delay on samples after quenching to reach the highest wear resistance and hardness.

Influence of soaking time in deep cryogenic treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of low-alloy medium-carbon HY-TUF steel

The influence of soaking time in deep cryogenic treatment on the tensile and impact properties of low-alloy medium-carbon HY-TUF steel was investigated in this study. Microstructural studies based on phase distribution mapping by electron backscatter diffraction show that the deep cryogenic process causes a decrease in the content of retained austenite and an increase in the volume fraction of η-carbide with increasing soaking time up to 48 h. The decrease in the content of retained austenite from ~1.23vol% to 0.48vol% suggests an isothermal martensitic transformation at 77 K. The η-type precipitates formed in deep cryogenic-treated martensite over 48 h have the Hirotsu and Nagakura orientation relation with the martensitic matrix. Furthermore, a high coherency between η-carbide and the martensitic matrix is observed by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy. The variations in macrohardness, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and ductility with soaking time in the deep cryogenic process show a peak/plateau trend.

Influence of cryogenic treatment on the wear characteristics of 100Cr6 bearing steel

A series of reciprocating wear tests were performed on the deep cryogenically treated and conventionally heat-treated samples of 100Cr6 bearing steel to study the wear resistance. The worn surfaces as well as the wear debris were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy. The improvement in wear resistance of the deep cryogenically treated samples ranges from 49% to 52%. This significant improvement in wear resistance can be attributed to finer carbide precipitation in the tempered martensitie matrix and the transformation of retained aus- tenite into martensite. X-ray diffraction analysis shows that the volume fraction of retained austenite in the conventionally heat-treated samples is 14% and that of the deep cryogenically treated samples is only 3%.

Microstructure of deep cryogenic treatment electrode for resistance spot welding of aluminium alloy

Cr-Zr-Cu alloy electrodes for resistance spot welding of aluminium alloy are treated by deep cryogenic treatment processes. The Cr-Zr-Cu alloy electrodes are analyzed by transmission electron microscope（ TEM ） , and results show that the common dislocation in Cr-Zr-Cu alloy electrodes is changed into the dislocation loop, and twin crystal is found after deep cryogenic treatment. The parallel twin crystal band is observed by selected electron diffraction（SED） and the twin crystal plane is marked as （ 111 ）. The Cr-Zr-Cu alloy electrode is studied by X-ray diffraction（ XRD ） and results show that the intensity of diffraction peak is obviously changed after deep cryogenic treatment, and the grain rotates to preferred orientation. The Cr-Zr- Cu alloy electrode is studied by positron annihilation technique （PAT） and results indicate that the amount of vacancy defects is less than that of Cr-Zr-Cu alloy before deep cryogenic treatment. The main elements in Cr-Zr-Cu alloy are studied with X- ray photoelctron spectroscopy（ XPS ） and the intensity of spectrum peak is increased after deep cryogenic treatment.

Effects of laser shock processing,solid solution and aging,and cryogenic treatments on microstructure and thermal fatigue performance of ZCuAl_(10)Fe_(3)Mn_(2)alloy

The materials used in variable temperature conditions are required to have excellent thermal fatigue performance.The effects of laser shock processing(LSP),solid solution and aging treatment(T6),and cryogenic treatment(CT)on both microstructure and thermal fatigue performance of ZCuAl_(10)Fe_(3)Mn_(2) alloys were studied.Microstructure and crack morphology were then examined by scanning electron microscopy(SEM)and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy(EDS).The result showed that,after being subjected to the combination treatment of T6+CT+LSP,the optimal mechanical properties and thermal fatigue performance were obtained for the ZCuAl_(10)Fe_(3)Mn_(2) alloy with the tensile strength,hardness,and elongation of 720 MPa,300.16 HB,and 16%,respectively,and the thermal fatigue life could reach 7,100 cycles when the crack length was 0.1 mm.Moreover,the ZCuAl_(10)Fe_(3)Mn_(2) after combination treatment shows high resistance to oxidation,good adhesion between the matrix and grain boundaries,and dramatically reduced growth rate of crack.During thermal fatigue testing,under the combined action of thermal and alternating stresses,the microstructure around the sample notch oxidized and became loose and porous,which then converted to micro-cracks.Fatigue crack expanded along the grain boundary in the early stage.In the later stage,under the cyclic stress accumulation,the oxidized microstructure separated from the matrix,and the fatigue crack expanded in both intergranular and transgranular ways.The main crack was thick,and the path was meandering.

Experimental study of cryogenic treatment of Karaganda coal samples

Karaganda Coal Basin bears the largest undeveloped reserve of coalbed methane(CBM)in Kazakhstan,which lacks water resources for implementing large-volume hydraulic fracturing.Cryogenic fracturing utilizing liquid nitrogen(LN_(2))has been trialled in fields and is a waterless fracturing technique under intensive research these days.This study aimed to evaluate the cryogenic treatment efficacy of Karaganda coal samples as well as to understand the coal permeability evolution during the thawing period.X-ray fluorescent spectrometry(XRF)and microscope imaging identified the compositional and structural heterogeneities of coal specimens mined from different interlayers.Acoustic emission test,permeability measurement,and microscope imaging comparatively characterized the dry coal structure alteration before and after immersion into LN_(2).Cryogenic treatment slowed down the S-wave velocity through coal specimens,enhanced permeability by over 65%after temperature recovery as well as created new fractures,enlarged existing ones,and spalled coal particles.Dynamic permeability evolution against temperature rise during the thawing process has been successfully captured for the first time.Overall,the experimental measurements support that the LN_(2) cryogenic fracturing technique would be effective in stimulating coalbeds for CBM production in Karaganda Coal Basin.

Corrosion behavior of Ni_(62)Nb_(33)Zr_(5)bulk metallic glasses after annealing and cryogenic treatments

The microstructural evolution and corrosion behavior of Ni_(62)Nb_(33)Zr_(5)bulk metallic glasses(BMGs)after annealing treatment(AT)at different crystallization temperatures and cryogenic treatment(CT)at−100℃are experimen-tally investigated.Appropriate AT and CT can both improve the thermal stability and comprehensive corrosion resistance of as-cast BMG in 3.5 wt.%NaCl solution.The annealed and cryo-treated BMGs exhibit one more finite diffusion layer loop in the electrical equivalent circuit than the as-cast BMG,indicating the complexity of the corrosion behavior.Superior corrosion resistance is obtained in the cryo-treated BMG because the high degree of amorphization caused by CT reduces the structural inhomogeneity.Lower C_(d)and higher R_(d)values are obtained for the cryo-treated BMG,revealing the formation of a more stable passive film.Among the annealed BMGs,the fully crystallized sample exhibits a higher anti-corrosion performance owing to the existence of Nb-rich oxides in the crystallization products.The passive film is found to be composed mainly of Nb_(2)O_(5)and ZrO_(2),demonstrating that Nb and Zr are conducive to reacting with oxygen to form a passive film.Based on the goal of maintaining a fully amorphous phase,appropriate CT causing structural homogeneity of the BMG is a simple and effective means to improve the comprehensive corrosion resistance.

Electrochemical behavior of Ti-6Al-4V alloy in Hank's solution subjected to deep cryogenic treatment

The effect of deep cryogenic treatment(DCT)on the electrochemical behavior of Ti-6Al-4V alloy in Hank's solution was experimentally investigated in the present work.Deep cryogenic treatments at-196℃soaking for 24(DCT-24) and 48(DCT-48) hours were conducted on the commercial annealed Ti-6Al-4V alloy.The methods of polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy(EIS) were employed to evaluate the electrochemical behavior and corrosion mechanism.Furthermore,atomic force microscopy(AFM) was used to detect the corrosion surface.The results showed that deep cryogenic treatment shifted the corrosion potentials(E_(corr))to the positive direction.The corrosion current densities(i_(corr))of samples treated by DCT-24 and DCT-48decreased from 153.1 nA·cm^(-2) in the untreated(UT)sample to 86.3 nA·cm^(-2) and 43.3 nA·cm^(-2),respectively.Furthermore,the roughness of corrosion surfaces of samples subjected to DCT was smaller than that of the UT sample,which indeed demonstrated the improvement in corrosion resistance of Ti-6Al-4V alloy in Hank's solution.The results of EIS test indicated that deep cryogenic treatment had no influence on the corrosion mechanism of Ti-6Al-4V alloy in Hank's,while enhanced resistance value of outer porous layer R_p,which makes the surface more efficient to prevent the corrosion.The reduction of β-phase particles,improvement in dislocation density and release of residual stress caused by deep cryogenic treatment had great contribution to the improvement in corrosion resistance of Ti-6Al-4V alloy in Hank's solution.