Process Characterization of the Transesterification of Rapeseed Oil to Biodiesel Using Design of Experiments and Infrared Spectroscopy

For optimization of production processes and product quality,often knowledge of the factors influencing the process outcome is compulsory.Thus,process analytical technology(PAT)that allows deeper insight into the process and results in a mathematical description of the process behavior as a simple function based on the most important process factors can help to achieve higher production efficiency and quality.The present study aims at characterizing a well-known industrial process,the transesterification reaction of rapeseed oil with methanol to produce fatty acid methyl esters(FAME)for usage as biodiesel in a continuous micro reactor set-up.To this end,a design of experiment approach is applied,where the effects of two process factors,the molar ratio and the total flow rate of the reactants,are investigated.The optimized process target response is the FAME mass fraction in the purified nonpolar phase of the product as a measure of reaction yield.The quantification is performed using attenuated total reflection infrared spectroscopy in combination with partial least squares regression.The data retrieved during the conduction of the DoE experimental plan were used for statistical analysis.A non-linear model indicating a synergistic interaction between the studied factors describes the reactor behavior with a high coefficient of determination(R^(2))of 0.9608.Thus,we applied a PAT approach to generate further insight into this established industrial process.

Cavitation Optimization for a Centrifugal Pump Impeller by Using Orthogonal Design of Experiment

Cavitation is one of the most important performance of centrifugal pumps. However, the current optimization works of centrifugal pump are mostly focusing on hydraulic efficiency only, which may result in poor cavitation performance. Therefore, it is necessary to find an appropriate solution to improve cavitation performance with acceptable efficiency. In this paper, to improve the cavitation performance of a centrifugal pump with a vaned diffuser, the influence of impeller geometric parameters on the cavitation of the pump is investigated using the orthogonal design of experiment （DOE） based on computational fluid dynamics. The impeller inlet diameter D1, inlet incidence angle Aft, and blade wrap angle ~0 are selected as the main impeller geometric parameters and the orthogonal experiment of L9（3＂3） is performed. Three-dimensional steady simulations for cavitation are conducted by using constant gas mass fraction model with second-order upwind, and the predicated cavitation performance is validated by laboratory experiment. The optimization results are obtained by the range analysis method to improve cavitation performance without obvious decreasing the efficiency of the centrifugal pump. The internal flow of the pump is analyzed in order to identify the flow behavior that can affect cavitation performance. The results show that D1 has the greatest influence on the pump cavitation and the final optimized impeller provides better flow distribution at blade leading edge. The final optimized impeller accomplishes better cavitation and hydraulic performance and the NPSHR decreases by 0.63m compared with the original one. The presented work supplies a feasible route in engineering practice to optimize a centrifugal pump impeller for better cavitation performance.

Study on solder joint reliability of ceramic ball grid array component based on design of experiment method

Four process parameters, pad diameter, stencil thickness, ball diameter and stand-off were chosen as four control factors. By using an L25 （5^6 ） orthogonal array the ceramic ball grid array （ CBGA ） solder joints which have 25 different combinations of process parameters were designed. The numerical models of all the 25 CBGA solder joints were developed using the Sugrace Evolver. Utilizing the sugrace coordinate exported from the 25 CBGA solder joints numerical models, the finite element analysis models were set up and the nonlinear finite element analysis of the CBGA solder joints under thermal cycles were pegrormed by ANSYS. The thermal fatigue life of CBGA solder joint was calculated using Coffin-Manson equation. Based on the calculated thermal fatigue life results, the range analysis and the variance analysis were pegrormed. The results show that the fatigue life of CBGA solder joint is affected by the pad diameter, the stencil thickness, the ball diameter and the stand-off in a descending order, the best combination of process parameters results in the longest fatigue life is 0.07 mm stand-off, 0.125 mm stencil thickness of, 0.85 mm ball diameter and 0. 89 mm pad diameter. With 95% confidence the pad diameter has a significant effect on the reliability of CBGA solder joints whereas the stand-off, the stencil thickness and the ball diameter have little effect on the reliability of CBGA solder joints.

Design of experiment study on hardness variations in friction stir welding of AM60 Mg alloy

Identification of process parameters,their effects and contributions to the outcomes of the system using experimental approach could be a daunting,time consuming,and costly course.Using proper statistical methods,i.e.,Taguchi method,could significantly reduce the number of required experiments and statistical significance of the parameter can be identified.Friction stir welding is one of those welding techniques with many parameters which have different effects on the quality of the welds.In friction stir welding the tool rotational speed(RPM)and transverse speed(mm/min)influence the strength(i.e.,hardness distribution)of the stirred zone.In this study,these two factors are investigated to determine the effect they will have on the hardness in the stirred zone of the friction stir welds and how the two factors are related to one another for as-cast magnesium alloy AM60 with nominal chemical composition of Mg-(5.5-6.5)Al-(0.24-0.6)Mn-0.22Zn-0.1Si.Experimental data was taken at three different tool rotational speeds and three different transverse speeds.The data obtained was then analyzed using a 32 factorial design to find the contribution of these parameters.It was determined that both tool rotational speed and transverse speed possess significant effects on the stir zone hardness.Also,the interactions between the two factors were statistically assessed.

Investigation of the optimum differential gear ratio for real driving cycles by experiment design and genetic algorithm

Experiment statistical method and genetic algorithms based optimization method are used to obtain the optimum differential gear ratio for heavy truck that provides best fuel consumption when changing the working condition that affects its torque and speed range. The aim of the study is to obtain the optimum differential gear ratio with fast and accurate optimization calculation without affecting drivability characteristics of the vehicle according to certain driving cycles that represent the new working conditions of the truck. The study is carried on a mining dump truck YT3621 with 9 for- ward shift manual transmission. Two loading conditions, no load and 40 t, and four on road real driving cycles have been discussed. The truck powertrain is modeled using GT-drive, and DOE -post processing tool of the GT-suite is used for DOE analysis and genetic algorithm optimization.

An Experimental Study of Surface Improvement in FDM Parts by Vapor Treatment Process

Fused deposition modeling is one of the most adaptable additive production method as a result of the value-effectiveness and environment-friendly nature.However,FDM technique nevertheless possesses primary problems in phrases of negative surface best due to including layer by using layer production method for the prototypes.It is acceptable to explore an efficient method for FDM elements to enhance the bad surface first-rate and dimensions precision.In the present research paper,an effort has been made to decorate the surface better and optimize the vital processing parameter of FDM based benchmark the use of vapor smoothing procedure(VSP).A comparative experimental take a look at has been completed by layout of experiments,Taguchi technique to analyse impact of input layout parameters at the floor finish of benchmark FDM parts.The outcomes of prevailing research display that VSP treatment improves the surface excellent of FDM components to micro stage with negligible dimensional variation.It is observed that improved floor excellent is observed in the 1,2,-Dichloroethane chemical at 90°component construct orientation,0.25 mm layer thickness,10%fill density and 90 sec Exposure times.

Gas exchange optimization in aircraft engines using sustainable aviation fuel:A design of experiment and genetic algorithm approach

The poppet valves two-stroke(PV2S)aircraft engine fueled with sustainable aviation fuel is a promising option for general aviation and unmanned aerial vehicle propulsion due to its high power-to-weight ratio,uniform torque output,and flexible valve timings.However,its high-altitude gas exchange performance remains unexplored,presenting new opportunities for optimization through artificial intelligence(AI)technology.This study uses validated 1D+3D models to evaluate the high-altitude gas exchange performance of PV2S aircraft engines.The valve timings of the PV2S engine exhibit considerable flexibility,thus the Latin hypercube design of experiments(DoE)methodology is employed to fit a response surface model.A genetic algorithm(GA)is applied to iteratively optimize valve timings for varying altitudes.The optimization process reveals that increasing the intake duration while decreasing the exhaust duration and valve overlap angles can significantly enhance high-altitude gas exchange performance.The optimal valve overlap angle emerged as 93°CA at sea level and 82°CA at 4000 m altitude.The effects of operating parameters,including engine speed,load,and exhaust back pressure,on the gas exchange process at varying altitudes are further investigated.The higher engine speed increases trapping efficiency but decreases the delivery ratio and charging efficiency at various altitudes.This effect is especially pronounced at elevated altitudes.The increase in exhaust back pressure will significantly reduce the delivery ratio and increase the trapping efficiency.This study demonstrates that integrating DoE with AI algorithms can enhance the high-altitude performance of aircraft engines,serving as a valuable reference for further optimization efforts.

DYNAMIC FINITE ELEMENT MODEL UPDATING BASED ON GLOBAL INFORMATION OF STRUCTURES

Finite element model updating method based on global information is proposed.Prior investigation upon design space of structural parameters is performed before updating usingstatistic analysis, including parameter screening using variance analysis and response surfacefitting using regression analysis. The parameter screening method selects the design parametersconsidering the result of hypothesis testing, which is a kind of global information. Meanwhile, thetraditional updating method considers local sensitivity which only gives the information at solepoint in the design space. Response surface fitting constructs a close-form multinomial whichdescribes the relationship between concerned structural feature and selected updating parameters. Itis an approximation to finite element models(FEM) and used as a substitution in the updatingiterations. The presented updating method can be applied without the restriction of linearassumption. In addition, there is no data exchange between the updating program and the finite-element analysis program in the updating iterations. This makes the method practical inengineering. An aircraft test structure, GARTEUR, is employed to verify the effectiveness of themethod. After updating, the error of modal frequencies is less than 3 percent.

Performance Analysis and Improvement of Flat Torque Converters Using DOE Method

Automotive torque converters have recently been designed with an increasingly narrower profile for the purpose of achieving a smaller axial size and reducing weight. Design of experiment(DOE) and computational fluid dynamics(CFD) techniques are applied to improve the performance of a flat torque converter. Four torque converters with different flatness ratios(0.204, 0.186, 0.172, and 0.158) are designed and simulated first to investigate the effects of flatness ratio on their overall performance, including efficiency, torque ratio, and impeller torque factor. The simulation results show that the overall performance tends to deteriorate as the flatness ratio decreases. Then a parametric study covering six geometric parameters, namely, inlet and outlet angles of impeller, turbine, and stator is carried out. The results demonstrate that the inlet and outlet angles play an important role in determining the performance characteristics of a torque converter. Furthermore, the relative importance of the six design parameters is investigated using DOE method for each response(stall torque ratio and peak efficiency). The turbine outlet angle is found to exert the greatest influence on both responses. After DOE analysis, an optimized design for the flat torque converter geometry is obtained. Compared to the conventional product, the width of the optimized flat torque converter torus is reduced by about 20% while the values of stall torque ratio and peak efficiency are only decreased by 0.4% and 1.7%, respectively.The proposed new optimization strategy based on DOE method together with desirability function approach can be used for performance enhancement in the design process of flat torque converters.

Modeling Approach and Analysis of the Structural Parameters of an Inductively Coupled Plasma Etcher Based on a Regression Orthogonal Design

The geometry of an inductively coupled plasma （ICP） etcher is usually considered to be an important factor for determining both plasma and process uniformity over a large wafer. During the past few decades, these parameters were determined by the ＂trial and error＂ method, resulting in wastes of time and funds. In this paper, a new approach of regression orthogonal design with plasma simulation experiments is proposed to investigate the sensitivity of the structural parameters on the uniformity of plasma characteristics. The tool for simulating plasma is CFD-ACE＋, which is commercial multi-physical modeling software that has been proven to be accurate for plasma simulation. The simulated experimental results are analyzed to get a regression equation on three structural parameters. Through this equation, engineers can compute the uniformity of the electron number density rapidly without modeling by CFD-ACE＋. An optimization performed at the end produces good results.

Modeling and optimization of cooling slope process parameters for semi-solid casting of A356 Al alloy

Semi-solid processing （SSP） of A356 aluminum alloy was discussed via cooling slope （CS） method. The D-optimal design of experiment （DODE） was employed for experimental design and analysis of results. 38 random experiments obtained by software were carried out. In experimental stage, the molten aluminum alloy was poured on an inclined plate with different lengths of 100, 300 and 500 mm set at 30°, 45° and 60° of slope angles respectively. Three different pouring temperatures of 660, 680 and 700 ℃ were also used. After the casting process, the partial re-melting treatment was carried out at 590 ℃ for different isothermal time of 5, 8 or 12 min. The combined effect of these factors on globularity of the primary α（Al） crystals was investigated and optimized using DODE. The results indicated that the primary dendritic phase in the conventionally cast A356 alloy was transformed into a non-dendritic one in ingots cast over a cooling plate. The CS processed samples exhibited a globular structure only after re-heating to semi-solid region. The optimum values of pouring temperature, cooling length, slope angle and isothermal holding time were found to be 660 ℃, 360 mm, 48°, and 9 min, respectively. In this case, the globularity of primary crystals was obtained, about 0.91. The obtained model is highly significant with a correlation coefficient of 0.9860.

Optimizing electrophoretic deposition conditions for enhancement in electrical conductivity of carbon fiber/carbon nanotube/epoxy hybrid composites

The effectiveness of optimizing electrical conductivity of carbon fiber/carbon nanotube （CNT）/epoxy hybrid composites via Taguchi method was demonstrated. CNTs were induced on carbon fabric by electrophoretic deposition （EPD） technique. The essential deposition parameters were identified as l） the deposition time, 2） the deposition voltage, 3） the mass fraction of CNTs in suspension, and 4） the distance between the electrodes. An experimental design was then performed to establish the appropriate levels for each factor. An orthogonal array of L9 （34） was designed to conduct the experiments. Electrical conductivity results were collected as the response. The relative influences of design parameters on the response were discussed. Using the model, signal to noise （S/N） ratio and response characteristics for the optimized deposition parameter combination were predicted. The results show clearly that the optimum condition of electrophoretic deposition （EPD） process improves the electrical conductivity of carbon/epoxy hybrid composites.

Analytical quality-by-design approach for sample treatment of BSA-containing solutions

The sample preparation of samples conlaining bovine serum albumin（BSA）,e.g..as used in transdermal Franz diffusion cell（FDC） solutions,was evaluated using an analytical qualily-by-design（QbD）approach.Traditional precipitation of BSA by adding an equal volume of organic solvent,often successfully used with conventional HPLC-PDA,was found insufficiently robust when novel fused-core HPLC and/or UPLC-MS methods were used.In this study,three factors（acetonitrile（%）.formic acid（%） and boiling time（min）） were included in the experimental design to determine an optimal and more suitable sample treatment of BSAcontaining FDC solutions.Using a QbD and Derringer desirability（D） approach,combining BSA loss,dilution factor and variability,we constructed an optimal working space with the edge of failure defined as D〈0.9.The design space is modelled and is confirmed to have an ACN range of 83 ± 3% and FA content of 1 ±0.25%.

Optimal design of FRMSM to decrease detent force

An optimal configuration of the flux-reversal linear synchronous motor (FRLSM) with the optimal number of attachment permanent magnets (PMs) was presented. The optimal model of 2 000 N was designed to reduce the detent force by redesigning the air-gap structure and skewing. The design parameters,mover PMs and stator core,were selected for optimal design by DOE. The thrust and the detent force of the designed optimal models were compared by finite element analysis (FEA). As a result,the thrust of the optimal model is slightly decreased by 1.97% compared with the basic model,and the detent force of the optimal model is greatly decreased by 88.47% compared with the basic model.

QbD Approach Method Development for Estimation of Dabigatran Etexilate along with Its Impurities and Identification of Degradants in Capsule Dosage Form

The concept of Quality by Design was demonstrated in the development of a stability-indicating assay and related substances method by HPLC for Dabigatran Etexilate Capsules dosage form. Method design, method evaluation, method control and life cycle management were explained by systematic flow chart. Analytical Target Product profile was defined. The method was developed using the Inertsil ODS-3V, 150 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm column using the gradient program with ammonium formate buffer as mobile phase A and acetonitrile as mobile phase B. Risk assessment was performed as part of method evaluation. Design of experiment tools was used to optimize the chromatographic conditions. A two-level Full Factorial Design along with Face Centered Central Composite design augmentation was employed and statistical analysis of the experimental data uncovered the significant influential of chromatographic factors. The design space and the contour plot suggest that the current center point parameters can be further modified, resulting in better acceptability of the response parameters. The performance of the optimized method was validated according to current ICH guidelines. Dabigatran Etexilate Capsules was subjected to various stress conditions like oxidative, acid, base, hydrolytic, thermal, humidity, and photolytic degradations and evaluated chromatograms at 220 nm. The degradation products were well separated from each other and main peak, demonstrating the stability-indicating power of the method. One of the major degradant impurities, which are forming in neutral hydrolysis stress condition, is isolated and characterized by using analytical techniques like IR, LC-MS and NMR. Degradation pathway for Dabigatran Etexilate was proposed based on forced degradation data along with reaction mechanism.

A Robust Optimization Approach Considering the Robustness of Design Objectives and Constraints

The problem of robust design is treated as a multi-objective optimization issue in which the performance mean and variation are optimized and minimized respectively, while maintaining the feasibility of design constraints under uncertainty. To effectively address this issue in robust design, this paper presents a novel robust optimization approach which integrates multi-objective optimization concepts with Taguchi’s crossed arrays techniques. In this approach, Pareto-optimal robust design solution sets are obtained with the aid of design of experiment set-ups, which utilize the results of Analysis of Variance to quantify relative dominance and significance of design variables. A beam design problem is used to illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach.

Performance metrics for the comparison of lithium ion cell aging experiments

The increasing use of lithium-ion cells in large-scale,long-term applications drives a need for design methods that considers aging and accurate state of health estimation.A common approach is to rely on an empirical or semiempirical aging model fit to experimental data to estimate the evolution of capacity and power fade.Because aging data are costly to collect,pack designers either use Design of Experiment(DOE)techniques to define a set of efficient tests,or use existing aging data to calibrate aging models.Given the increasing quantity of available aging data,the question arises:how can experimental aging campaigns be quickly compared?However,a methodology for the comparison of sets of aging experiments is not discussed in the literature.As a result,pack designers usually rely on intuition to select between multiple aging studies proposed by DOE techniques or in the literature.This work proposes metrics to quantitatively capture the alignment between a set of aging experiments and a target application.These metrics allow pack designers to quickly compare many sets of aging experiments to evaluate those which have tested conditions relevant to the application.Case studies are presented to illustrate the application of these metrics using aging campaign data from the literature.To validate these metrics,this work examines the relationship between these metric values and aging model validation error for calendar aging data for 18650 NMC battery cells.It is demonstrated that greater metric values correspond to reduced model error for an empirical capacity fade model.

A method to determine the bonded-particle model parameters for simulation of ores

The bonded-particle model(BPM)is commonly used in the numerical analysis of ore samples.To improve the accuracy of simulating the mechanical process of ore process of ore crushing in a crusher,the parameters of the BPM for the ore must be calibrated.In this study,a calibration method was proposed for the scientific determination of the parameters of the BPM for ore undergoing uniaxial compression.First,physical tests and simulations were conducted to determine the mechanical response(uniaxial compressive strength and macroscopic stiffness)of ore during uniaxial compression.Then,the sensitivity of the mechanical response to the values of microscopic parameters was tested using a Plackett-Burman design.Next,the microscopic parameters with the greatest impact on the response were identified,and the range of parameters that met the target response was determined using a steepest ascent design;Second,a second-order model of the mechanical response was established using the sensitive parameters by combining a Box-Behnken design with response surface methodology to obtain the optimal BPM parameters.Simulation tests showed that the normal stiffness per unit area,critical shear stress,and bonded disk radius had significant effects on the uniaxial compressive strength(UCS)and macroscopic stiffness(MS).To verify the validity of the proposed calibration method,laboratory tests were conducted.The consistency of the simulation results with experimental results indicated that response surface methodology with the Plackett-Burman design,steepest ascent design,and Box-Behnken design can be an effective method for calibrating the BPM of ores.

Theoretical and experimental study of surface texturing with laser machining

To explore the forming process and mechanism of the surface texture of laser micropits,this paper presents the thermal model of laser machining based on the Neumann boundary conditions and an investigation on the effects of various parameters on the processing.The surface profile and quality of the formed micropits were analyzed using NanoFocus 3D equipment through a design of experiment(DOE).The results showed that more intense melting and splashing occurred with higher power density and narrower pulse widths.Moreover,the compressive stress is an important indicator of the damage effects,and the circumferential thermal stress is the primary factor influencing the diameter expansion.During the process of laser machining,not only did oxides such as CuO and ZnO generate,the energy distribution also tended to decrease gradually from region#1 to region#3 based on an energy dispersive spectrometer(EDS)analysis.The factors significantly affecting the surface quality of the micropit surface texture are the energy and pulse width.The relationship between taper angle and energy is appropriately linear.Research on the formation process and mechanism of the surface texture of laser micropits provides important guidance for precision machining.

Tool Wear Prediction in Micro-end-milling with Hard Material

The applications of micro machining have increased drastically in the last ten years. However, tools with less than lmm diameter using for micro-mills have very short and unpredictable life when they are used to cut hard metals. In this study, preliminary design of experiment （DOE） test program was conducted to investigate and i- dentify the factors affecting tool wear at the micro-scale with hard material. Analysis of variance （ANOVA） and Taguchi method were efficient to determine appropriate cutting condition and the effect of parameters. A simple model was also developed to predict the width of slots on the workpiece along the cutting length. The obtained re- suits can provide the basic guidelines for parameter setting of micro-end-milling with hard material.