Characterization for elastic constants of fused deposition modelling-fabricated materials based on the virtual fields method and digital image correlation

Fused deposition modelling(FDM), a widely used rapid prototyping process, is a promising technique in manufacturing engineering. In this work, a method for characterizing elastic constants of FDM-fabricated materials is proposed. First of all, according to the manufacturing process of FDM, orthotropic constitutive model is used to describe the mechanical behavior. Then the virtual fields method(VFM) is applied to characterize all the mechanical parameters(Q, Q, Q, Q) using the full-field strain,which is measured by digital image correlation(DIC). Since the principal axis of the FDM-fabricated structure is sometimes unknown due to the complexity of the manufacturing process, a disk in diametrical compression is used as the load configuration so that the loading angle can be changed conveniently. To verify the feasibility of the proposed method, finite element method(FEM) simulation is conducted to obtain the strain field of the disk. The simulation results show that higher accuracy can be achieved when the loading angle is close to 30?. Finally, a disk fabricated by FDM was used for the experiment. By rotating the disk, several tests with different loading angles were conducted. To determine the position of the principal axis in each test, two groups of parameters(Q, Q, Q, Q) are calculated by two different groups of virtual fields. Then the corresponding loading angle can be determined by minimizing the deviation between two groups of the parameters. After that, the four constants(Q, Q, Q, Q) were determined from the test with an angle of 27?.

Tensile strength of sea ice using splitting tests based on the digital image correlation method

The splitting test is a competitive alternative method to study the tensile strength of sea ice owing to its suitability for sampling.However,the approach was questioned to the neglect of local plastic deformation during the tests.In this study,splitting tests were performed on sea ice,with 32 samples subjected to the regular procedure and 8 samples subjected to the digital image correlation method.The salinity,density,and temperature were measured to determine the total porosity.With the advantage of the digital image correlation method,the full-field deformation of the ice samples could be determined.In the loading direction,the samples mainly deformed at the ice-platen contact area.In the direction vertical to the loading,deformation appears along the central line where the splitting crack occurs.Based on the distribution of the sample deformation,a modified solution was derived to calculate the tensile strength with the maximum load.Based on the modified solution,the tensile strength was further calculated together with the splitting test results.The results show that the tensile strength has a negative correlation with the total porosity,which agrees with previous studies based on uniaxial tension tests.

Digital image correlation based high-speed crack tip locatingmethod and its application

Based on a digital image correlation（DIC）method with the measurements of a high speed crack＇s displacement and strain fields,a technique to accurately and automatically locate its crack tip has been developed.The crack tip is identified by finding the abrupt jump on the opening（or dislocation）curve of a point on the trace of the crack propagation,while the opening is measured through a virtual extensometer technique and the abrupt jump is identified by finding the peak on the curve.The method was verified using a specially designed experiment and applied to measure the critical crack tip opening angle of a rock sample.Because the involvement of analytical models has been avoided and then the good performance could be ensured for low resolution speckle images,this technique is expected to be very useful in the quantitative study of high speed cracks in experiments using high speed cameras.

Specimen aspect ratio and progressive field strain development of sandstone under uniaxial compression by three-dimensional digital image correlation

The complete stress-strain characteristics of sandstone specimens were investigated in a series of quasistatic monotonic uniaxial compression tests.Strain patterns development during pre-and post-peak behaviours in specimens with different aspect ratios was also examined.Peak stress,post-peak portion of stress-strain,brittleness,characteristics of progressive localisation and field strain patterns development were affected at different extents by specimen aspect ratio.Strain patterns of the rocks were obtained by applying three-dimensional(3D) digital image correlation(DIC) technique.Unlike conventional strain measurement using strain gauges attached to specimen,3D DIC allowed not only measuring large strains,but more importantly,mapping the development of field strain throughout the compression test,i.e.in pre-and post-peak regimes.Field strain development in the surface of rock specimen suggests that strain starts localising progressively and develops at a lower rate in pre-peak regime.However,in post-peak regime,strains increase at different rates as local deformations take place at different extents in the vicinity and outside the localised zone.The extent of localised strains together with the rate of strain localisation is associated with the increase in rate of strength degradation.Strain localisation and local inelastic unloading outside the localised zone both feature post-peak regime.

Digital Image Correlation Using Specific Shape Function for Stress Intensity Factor Measurement

The stress intensity factor (SIF) is a critical parameter associated with the fracture behaviour of materials. In this paper, we select the displacement function around a crack tip as the shape function of the digital image correlation (DIC), which makes it possible to directly calculate the SIF by the correlation scheme. Moreover, we use a non-rectangular subset, which can reduce the influence of plastic deformation and crack width on the DIC measurement accuracy. We measured the SIF of a mode I crack in a super-hard aluminium alloy specimen to verify the performance of the proposed method. Our experimental results show that a DIC with a specific shape function can be used to accurately and efficiently calculate the SIF. Furthermore, we also present a practical application of our proposed method for determining the SIF, crack propagation angle and crack tip displacement. © 2017, Tianjin University and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.

Bi-prism-based single-lens three dimensional digital image correlation system with a long working distance: Methodology and application in extreme high temperature deformation test

As a novel three dimensional digital image correlation （3D DIC） method, the bi-prism-based single lens （BSL） 3D DIC method has been proposed and developed in recent years. Making use ofa bi-prism, this method is able to perform a 3D DIC measurement using only a single camera. Thus, the integration level of a BSL 3D DIC system could be much higher than that of the double-camera 3D DIC system. In this paper, using a small-angle bi-prism and a camera with a longer focal length, a special BSL 3D DIC system with a long working distance is designed for measurements in extreme environments. The principle of the system is first studied, and practical methods are then proposed for the system set-up and the determination of system parameters. Then, feasibility of the measurement system is verified by out-of-plane rigid-body translation tests. Finally, the BSL 3D DIC system is proven to be capable of combining with a high-temperature testing instrument to perform deformation tests in a high-temperature environment of up to 1500℃.

Deformation field and crack analyses of concrete using digital image correlation method

The study on the deformation distribution and crack propagation of concrete under axial compression was conducted by the digital image correlation (DIC) method. The main parameter in this test is the water-cement (fT/C) ratio. The novel analysis process and numerical program for DIC method were established. The displacements and strains of coarse aggregate, and cement mortar and interface transition zone (ITZ) were obtained and verified by experimental results. It was found that the axial displacement distributed non-uniformly during the loading stage, and the axial displacements of ITZs and cement mortar were larger than that of coarse aggregates before the occurrence of macrocracks. The effect of W/C on the horizontal displacement was not obvious. Test results also showed that the transverse and shear deformation concentration areas (DCAs) were formed when stress reached 30%-40% of the peak stress. The transverse and shear DCAs crossed the cement mortar, and ITZs and coarse aggregates. However, the axial DCA mainly surrounded the coarse aggregate. Generally, the higher W/C was, the more size and number of DCAs were. The crack propagations of specimens varied with the variation of W/C. The micro-crack of concrete mainly initiated in the ITZs, irrespective of the W/C. The number and distribution range of cracks in concrete with high W/C were larger than those of cracks in specimen adopting low W/C. However, the value and width of eraeks in high W/C specimen were relatively small. The W/C had an obvious effect on the characteristics of concrete deterioration. Finally, the characteristics of crack was also evaluated by comparing the calculated results.

The improved genetic algorithms for digital image correlation method

We present a global optimization method, called the genetic algorithms (GAs), for digital image/speckle correlation (DISC). The new algorithms do not involve reasonable initial guess of displacement and deformation gradient and the calculation of second-order spatial derivatives of the digital images, which are important challenges in practical implementation of DISC. The performance of a GA depends largely on the selection of the genetic operators. We test various operators and propose optimal operators. The algorithms are then verified using simulated images and experimental speckle images.

Multi-perspective digital image correlation method using a single color camera

A novel 3 D digital image correlation(DIC) system based on a single three charge-couple device(3 CCD) color camera is proposed in this paper. Images from three different perspectives are captured by a 3 CCD camera using a reflective-based pseudo-vision system. These images are then separated by the different CCD channels, and the correlation algorithm for the multi-camera DIC system is adopted to evaluate the images. Compared to the conventional multi-camera DIC system, the proposed system is much more compact. In addition, the proposed system has no loss of spatial resolution, compares to the traditional single camera DIC system. The complex surface measurement ability and the measurement accuracy is significantly improved through the use of the multi-camera DIC algorithm. The principle of the proposed system is described in detail as well as the experimental setup. A series of validation tests are performed, and the results are verified with the commercial 3 D-DIC system.

Application of Digital Image Correlation Method to In-Situ Dynamic Strain Measurement

Application of digital image correlation(DIC) method to determination of in-situ dynamic strain is presented in this study. Firstly, an integrative software is programmed based on the DIC algorithms and pointwise least-squares fitting technique. Then, simulated speckle images are generated to study the computational accuracy of this software. The experimental setup and procedures for measuring in-situ dynamic strain through both DIC and strain gauge are proposed. The DIC results are close to those measured by strain gauge. This fact reveals that DIC is a practical and effective tool for in-situ dynamic strain measurement. Finally, the full-field in-situ dynamic strain of another specimen is measured by DIC, and the overall distribution of the strain in the measurement area is clearly shown.

基于DIC及CPG技术的热冷循环后花岗岩Ⅰ型断裂特性

深部储层岩石的热力学特性,尤其是循环热冷作用下损伤破坏特性,对于增强型地热系统井壁稳定性分析及地热开采效率评估具有重要意义。针对中心直裂纹半圆盘(NSCB)花岗岩试样,首先进行不同热冷循环处理(加热温度400℃,最高循环次数13次),然后开展3点弯Ⅰ型断裂韧度特性试验。基于裂纹扩展计(CPG)和数字图像相关(DIC)测试技术,研究了热冷循环作用下花岗岩Ⅰ型断裂韧度、断裂过程区(FPZ)、裂纹扩展速率及断裂轮廓特征的影响规律。试验结果表明:当热冷循环次数达到10次以上,花岗岩试样脆性明显减弱,而峰前软化特性和峰后延性增强;花岗岩的断裂过程区由裂缝尖端开始逐步孕育,断裂过程区长度随荷载增大呈先增大后减小的趋势,Ⅰ型断裂韧度、最大断裂过程区长度及裂纹平均扩展速度随热冷循环次数增大而指数减小,Ⅰ型断裂面随热冷循环次数增大越来越不平整。最后,基于X-ray衍射(XRD)和扫描电镜(SEM)等微观测试技术,研究了热冷循环作用对花岗岩矿物成分及微观结构的影响规律,结果表明花岗岩4种矿物成分的峰值衍射强度及矿物质量分数均随热冷循环次数增大而降低,而微裂纹大小及数量随热冷循环次数增大而增大。热冷循环作用下花岗岩的损伤劣化机理包含了多次高温热损伤、水冷冲击及水弱化等3方面的联合作用结果。

基于DIC古建筑青砖受冻融循环作用的损伤演化

以内蒙古隆盛庄古建筑青砖砌体为研究对象,通过数字图像相关(DIC)技术,研究古建筑青砖在冻融循环作用下的损伤破坏规律,采用双因子——损伤程度因子和损伤局部化因子来表征古建筑青砖的单轴压缩损伤过程,并根据双因子损伤演化曲线建立了不同冻融循环次数下的损伤演化模型.结果表明:古建筑青砖在单轴压缩下的破坏过程可分为初始损伤闭合阶段、线弹性损伤阶段、弹塑性损伤阶段和塑性损伤阶段4个阶段;随着冻融循环次数的增加,青砖表面应变集中程度增大,使其承载能力降低;冻融循环会缩短双因子曲线的线弹性阶段,同时利用双因子建立的损伤演化模型能有效反映冻融循环作用下古建筑青砖材料的损伤演化过程.

Heterogeneous parallel computing accelerated iterative subpixel digital image correlation

Parallel computing techniques have been introduced into digital image correlation(DIC) in recent years and leads to a surge in computation speed. The graphics processing unit(GPU)-based parallel computing demonstrated a surprising effect on accelerating the iterative subpixel DIC, compared with CPU-based parallel computing. In this paper, the performances of the two kinds of parallel computing techniques are compared for the previously proposed path-independent DIC method, in which the initial guess for the inverse compositional Gauss-Newton(IC-GN) algorithm at each point of interest(POI) is estimated through the fast Fourier transform-based cross-correlation(FFT-CC) algorithm. Based on the performance evaluation, a heterogeneous parallel computing(HPC) model is proposed with hybrid mode of parallelisms in order to combine the computing power of GPU and multicore CPU. A scheme of trial computation test is developed to optimize the configuration of the HPC model on a specific computer. The proposed HPC model shows excellent performance on a middle-end desktop computer for real-time subpixel DIC with high resolution of more than 10000 POIs per frame.

Ultraviolet 3D digital image correlation applied for deformation measurement in thermal testing with infrared quartz lamps

In thermal-structural testing of hypersonic materials and structures,deformation measurement on the front surface of an object directly heated by quartz lamps is highly necessary and very challenging.This work describes a novel front-surface high-temperature deformation measurement technique,which adopts ultraviolet 3D digital image correlation(UV 3D-DIC)to observe and measure the high-temperature deformation fields on front surfaces directly heated by quartz lamps.Compared with existing blue light DIC techniques,the established UV 3D-DIC,which combines UV CCD camera,active UV illumination and bandpass filter imaging,can effectively suppress the strong disturbing light emitted by the quartz lamps and the heated sample itself during heating process.Two experiments were carried out to verify the robustness and accuracy of the developed technique:(1)direct observation of front surfaces of a hypersonic thermal structure sample heated from room temperature to 1050℃,and(2)front-surface thermal stain and coefficient of thermal expansion(CTE)measurement of an Inconel 718 sample up to 800℃.The well matched strain and CTE results with literature data show that UV 3D-DIC system is an effective technique for front-surface deformation measurement and has great potential in characterizing deformation response of hypersonic materials and structures subjected to transient aerodynamic heating.

Residual stress determination in friction stir butt welded joints using a digital image correlation-aided slitting technique

This paper presents an incremental cutting method for evaluating the longitudinal residual stresses in a butt welded thin plate via combining the traditional residual stress measurement methods and the advanced optical technique.The proposed approach,which can be called digital image correlation（DIC）-aided slitting technique,introduces a successive extension slot to a specimen and employs the DIC technique to measure the released displacement profiles of the cutting sections after each cutting increment.Then the displacement profiles are used to directly calculate the residual stress distributions up to the slot tip and hence,a stress distribution can be obtained after a cutting increment.Finally,all of the stress distributions are averaged to ultimately determine the original residual stress field.This method does not include any complex experimental operations or tedious derivation,and the resolution of stress variation is greatly improved by the continuous measurement of the released displacements.The presented method has been preliminarily verified by a specimen with residual stress introduced by a four-point bending test.The results show that residual stresses determined by the DIC-aided slitting technique agree well with those from finite element（FE） prediction.The residual stress in a friction stir welded aluminum specimen obtained by the presented technique is also consistent with the evaluations given by X-ray diffraction.Furthermore,the residual stresses obtained by the DIC-aided slitting technique demonstrate higher accuracy and stability than the evaluations derived by the DIC-aided contour method.

Precise 3D shape measurement of three-dimensional digital image correlation for complex surfaces

Three dimensional-digital image correlation （3D-DIC） is a widely used optical metrology in the experimental mechanics community because of its reliability, practicality, and flexibility. Although the precision of digital image correlation （DIC） has been thoroughly studied theoretically and numerically, verification experiments have seldom been performed, especially fbr complex surfaces with a small field of view （FOV）. In this work, the shape of a 1-yuan coin was measured using 3D-DIC; the shape was complex due to the presence of many fine details, and the FOV was relatively small because the coin diameter was only 25 mm. During the experiment, a novel strategy for speckle production was developed： white paint was simply sprayed onto the surface. Black paint was not used; instead, taking advantage of the reflective nature of the coin surface, polarized light and a Polaroid filter were introduced, and the polarization direction was carefully adjusted, ensuring that the spray pattern was extremely thin and that high-quality speckle images with significant contrast were captured. The three-dimensional coin shape was also successfully determined for comparison using a stylus profiler. The results demonstrate that 3D-DIC provides high precision in shape measurement even for complex surfaces with small FOV. The precision of 3D-DIC can reach 1/7000 of the field of view, corresponding to about 6 ~tm in this experiment.

基于DIC技术的自密实混凝土界面裂缝扩展规律研究

采用自密实混凝土作为堆石混凝土坝的抗冲磨层并与坝体进行一体化浇筑成型是一种新构造,其中抗冲磨层与坝体的界面性能至关重要。通过制作600 mm×600 mm×600 mm自密实混凝土(SCC)试件(C40SCC、C25SCC)及C40、C25SCC分层浇注试件(C40-C25SCC),结合数字图像技术(DIC)开展劈裂抗拉试验,分析了自密实混凝土界面裂缝扩展规律。结果表明:SCC断面破坏形态表现为骨料劈裂和剥落2种破坏形式;C40SCC、C25SCC及C40-C25SCC劈裂抗拉强度分别为1.861、1.416和1.362 MPa;基于DIC技术获取了裂缝相关参数,其中C40-C25SCC裂缝最大开口宽度、扩展时间均为最大,分别为0.125 mm、10.667 ms,C25SCC裂缝最大扩展速度最快,为10.12 m/s。研究表明:骨料的存在及粒径大小改变了试件破坏形态,影响了裂缝开口宽度及扩展速度变化。

Fatigue Damage Development in 14MoV6-3 Steel for Power Plant Pipes Monitored by Digital Image Correlation

In this paper,fatigue damage development of 14MoV6-3(13HMF)power engineering steel was studied through different experimental and analytical approaches.The specimens machined from the as-received pipe were subjected to fatigue loading and simultaneously monitored using the digital image correlation(DIC)technique.The damage development was analysed through microstructural observations of fracture surfaces and further described as a function of the fatigue damage parameter D and the fatigue damage measureφ.The combination of such parameters’evolution with the number of cycles to failure and the DIC technique enables a determination of separate stages of damage development.It was found that dynamics of damage could be effectively exposed within the first 100 cycles.

基于DIC聚丙烯腈纤维的混凝土断裂性能研究与数值分析

为改善C60混凝土的断裂韧性,探究聚丙烯腈纤维对C60混凝土力学性能的影响规律。在7 d、28 d抗压强度和劈裂抗拉强度的基础上,采用数字图像相关方法进行三点弯曲断裂性能试验。基于双K断裂理论分析了不同聚丙烯腈纤维掺量(0.6、0.9、1.2 kg/m^(3))对C60混凝土起裂韧度和失稳断裂韧度的影响规律。此外,基于扩展有限元法通过Abaqus软件建立了基于能量的线性软化损伤模型,模拟了混凝土梁三点弯曲断裂以及裂缝损伤演化过程。研究结果表明:3种掺量的聚丙烯腈纤维对C60混凝土劈裂抗拉强度均有显著提高趋势,提升幅度分别为33.36%、37.90%、25.28%,而对抗压强度影响并不显著,在掺量较小时抗压强度有小幅提升;基于双K断裂理论,三种纤维掺量对起裂韧度的提升幅度分别为24.23%、70.59%、25.96%,对失稳断裂韧度的提升幅度分别为5.81%、55.93%、13.59%,试验确定聚丙烯腈纤维最佳掺量为0.9 kg/m^(3);聚丙烯腈纤维在混凝土基体开裂过程中逐渐承担荷载,改变了裂缝形貌与演化趋势,使裂缝从主裂缝发展出多条细小裂缝,提高了裂缝发展的复杂程度;通过扩展有限元数值模拟得到的荷载-裂缝张开口位移曲线与试验结果吻合度较高,可以较好地表征聚丙烯腈纤维混凝土的断裂过程和裂缝演化趋势。研究成果为高性能混凝土增强增韧理论、方法与工程应用提供参考和依据。

A novel indirect optical method for rock stress measurement using microdeformation field analysis

Stress measurement plays a crucial role in geomechanics and rock engineering,especially for the design and construction of large-scale rock projects.This paper presents a novel method,based on the traditional stress relief approach,for indirectly measuring rock stress using optical techniques.The proposed method allows for the acquisition of full-field strain evolution on the borehole’s inner wall before and after disturbance,facilitating the determination of three-dimensional(3D)stress information at multiple points within a single borehole.The study focuses on presenting the method’s theoretical framework,laboratory validation results,and equipment design conception.The theoretical framework comprises three key components:the optical imaging method of the borehole wall,the digital image correlation(DIC)method,and the stress calculation procedure.Laboratory validation tests investigate strain field distribution on the borehole wall under varying stress conditions,with stress results derived from DIC strain data.Remarkably,the optical method demonstrates better measurement accuracy during the unloading stage compared to conventional strain gauge methods.At relatively high stress levels,the optical method demonstrates a relative error of less than 7%and an absolute error within 0.5 MPa.Furthermore,a comparative analysis between the optical method and the conventional contact resistance strain gauge method highlights the optical method’s enhanced accuracy and stability,particularly during the unloading stage.The proposed optical stress measurement device represents a pioneering effort in the application of DIC technology to rock engineering,highlighting its potential to advance stress measurement techniques in the field.