Effect of strain hardening and strain softening on welding distortion and residual stress of A7N01-T4 aluminum alloy by simulation analysis

The effect of strain hardening and strain softening behavior of flow stress changing with temperature on welding residual stress,plastic strain and welding distortion of A7N01-T4 aluminum alloy was studied by finite simulation method.The simulation results show that the weld seam undergoes strain hardening in the temperature range of 180-250 ℃,however,it exhibits strain softening at temperature above 250 ℃ during welding heating and cooling process.As a result,the strain hardening and strain softening effects counteract each other,introducing slightly influence on the welding residual stress,residual plastic strain and distortion.The welding longitudinal residual stress was determined by ultrasonic stress measurement method for the flat plates of A7N01-T4 aluminum alloy.The simulation results are well accordant with test ones.

Study of residual stresses and distortions from the Ti6Al4V based thinwalled geometries built using LPBF process

The current paper focuses on the prediction of residual stresses and distortions in the Laser Powder Bed Fusion(LPBF)built Ti6Al4V thin-walled geometries using Ansys Additive Print(AAP)software which employs a layer-by-layer accumulation of inherent strain to calculate the deformations.Isotropic and anisotropic strain scaling factors were calibrated initially within the APP software for the Ti6Al4V based single cantilever beam geometry.Subsequently,the numerical simulations were performed in APP software and computed the residual stresses and distortions for the varied process parameters including laser power,scan speed and hatch distance while maintaining the layer thickness constant for all the design iterations.The numerical predictions were compared;they were found to match reasonably well with the XRD measurements within the calibrated regime.

A Displacement Based Analytical Model to Determine Residual Stress Components in a Finite Elastic Thin Plate with Hole-Drilling Method

In order to measure the residual stress components in an elastic thin plate, the hole-drilling strain-gage method has been used. This method enables to determine the relation between the magnitudes and directions of the principal stresses and the strain relaxation about the hole. In the existing analytical models based on stress field, the formulations associated with the hole-drilling method are based on the assumption of an infinite plate, this may cause some errors for a finite plate and it’s difficult to validate these solutions by FE methods. Furthermore, in the composite, the displacement field is continuous but the stress field is not necessarily continuous, the displacement field based method has to be used. In the present paper an analyt-ical model based on a displacement field described by a function with coefficients to determine for a finite round thin plate is presented. The coefficients used in the displacement field are independent on the three residual stress components, and they are determined by minimization of the internal strain energy during the hole-drilling process. Once the coefficients in the dis-placement field are determined, three strains measured in three radial directions are utilized to determine the three residual stress components. The proposed analytical model can be also adapted to infinite plate by assuming that the diameter of the round plate tends to infinite.

Study on Plasticity Modification for Measuring High Residual Stress by Hole-Drilling Method

Hole-drilling method is a commonly used method for measuring residual stress. The calibration coefficients in ASTM E837-13 a would cause large errors due to the plasticity deformation of materials. In the study, calibration coefficients were modified in the plasticity deformation stage based on the distortion energy theory. The calibration experiment of calibration coefficients was simulated by the finite element model, and the plasticity modification formulas of 7075 aluminum alloy were obtained. From the results of uniaxial tensile loading test, the measuring errors of high residual stress are significantly reduced from-4.071%～53.440% to-5.140% ～ 0.609% after the plasticity modification. This work provides an effective way to expand the application of hole-drilling method.

Butt-welding Residual Stress of Heat Treatable Aluminum Alloys

This study, taking three types of aluminum alloys 2024-T351, 6061-T6 and 7075-T6 as experimental materials, conducted single V-groove GTAW （gas tungsten arc welding） butt-welding to analyze and compare the magnitude and differences of residual stress in the three aluminum alloys at different single V-groove angles and in restrained or unrestrained conditions. The results show that the larger the grooving angle of butt joint, the higher the residual tensile stress. Too small grooving angle will lead to dramatic differences due to the amount of welding bead filler metal and pre-set joint geometry. Therefore, only an appropriate grooving angle can reduce residual stress. While welding, weldment in restrained condition will lead to a larger residual stress. Also, a residual stress will arise from the restraint position. The ultimate residual stress of weldment is determined by material yield strength at equilibrium temperature. The higher the yield strength at equilibrium temperature, the higher the material residual stress. Because of its larger thermal conductivity, aluminum alloy test specimens have small temperature differential. Therefore, the residual tensile stress of all materials is lower than their yield strength.

Measurement of residual stress in a multi-layer semiconductor heterostructure by micro-Raman spectroscopy

Si-based multilayer structures are widely used in current microelectronics. During their preparation, some inhomogeneous residual stress is induced, resulting in competition between interface mismatching and surface energy and even leading to structure failure. This work presents a methodological study on the measurement of residual stress in a multi-layer semiconductor heterostructure. Scanning electron microscopy（SEM）, micro-Raman spectroscopy（MRS）, and transmission electron microscopy（TEM） were applied to measure the geometric parameters of the multilayer structure. The relationship between the Raman spectrum and the stress/strain on the [100] and [110] crystal orientations was determined to enable surface and crosssection residual stress analyses, respectively. Based on the Raman mapping results, the distribution of residual stress along the depth of the multi-layer heterostructure was successfully obtained.

Method for Measuring Residual Stresses Induced by Boring in Internal Surface of Tube and Its Validation with XRD Method

Residual stresses can have a strong effect on the usability of machined parts,and the X-ray diffraction(XRD)measuring equipment,which is commonly used to measure residual stresses,is very expensive.This paper presents a method of measuring the residual stresses induced by boring in the internal surface of a tube with much cheaper equipment.The method,called the strain-based method is mainly based on the strains measured on the external surface of the tube.It is proposed on the basis of the very long tube assumption.The finite element method(FEM)analysis is thus used to validate the length of the tube.Guided by the FEM results,an appropriate length of the tube is chosen,and the residual stresses are obtained from both the strain-based method and the XRD method.Stress profiles obtained from both two methods are compared.The comparison result indicates that the profiles of the two methods agree well with each other.Therefore,it can be concluded that the accuracy of the strain-based method is high enough,and it can be applied to residual stress measurement in practice.

Use of Plastic Correction Formula to Improve Accuracy of Welding Residual Stress Test with Blind-Hole Method

The blind-hole method is the most widely used approach to experimentally determine the distribution of residual stress. This paper aims to improve test accuracy of welding residual stress and conducts an experimental study on the strain release factors involved when using the blind-hole method for Q235 and Q345, two steels commonly used in building structures. The ranges of strain release factors A and B in the elastic stage, the effects of strain release factors on residual stress calculated values, and the plastic corrected strain release factors are analyzed considering of the effect of plastic deformation around the blind hole on measurement accuracy. Finally, a simplified calculation formula to determine strain release factors is proposed for use with the blind-hole method. Results show that in the elastic stage, strain release factor A for Q235 and Q345 ranges from-0.399 to-0.525 and strain release factor B from-0.791 to-0.960. Changing the strain release factors A and B shows that calculated residual tensile stress varies in relation to a decrease in both factor values. However, there is a increase in calculated residual compressive stress with a decrease in the strain release factor A value, but there is an decrease with a decrease in strain release factor B value. Calculated residual stress applied to elastic strain release factors is compared with that applied to amended plastic strain release factors for Q235 steel. The maximum deviation between calculated residual stress and test stress is reduced from 21.1 to 1.0%,and for Q345 steel from 26.5 to 1.2%. It is thus evident that the plastic correction formula proposed in this paper can be used in calculations when conducting a residual stress test.

MAIN TOPICS,ABSTRACTS ＆ KEY WORDS-Mfect of surface roughness on the results of residual stress measurement

Spherical indentation strain-gauge method is one of methods to m easure the surfaced residual stress with m easurem ent depth of 0. 1mm. The im pact of surface roughness on residual stress results was discussed. The results have shown th at, in tests ① and ② , Rx is droppedby 14 MPa approximately with the surface roughness being decreased from 0. 75 μm to 0. 55 μm . While in 44 MPa with the surface roughness being decreased from 0 . 75 μm to 0. 55 μm . Compared to tests ① and ② , the effect of the surface roughnesson residual stress results is more significant in tests ③ and ④ , and the reduction effect of surface roughness on residual stress measurement is enhanced. In engineering application, most components are already in different stress states. Therefore, the influence on residual stress m easurem ent can not be ignored. Residual stress of a 2219-T87 A1 alloy plate was m easured. With the confidence level of 0. 95 , the confidence interval is [-122.515,-113.8849] MPa.

A fast numerical method of introducing the strengthening effect of residual stress and strain to tensile behavior of metal matrix composites

Thermal residual stress and strain(TRSS)in particle reinforced metal matrix composites(PRMMCs)are believed to cause strengthening effects,according to previous studies.Here,the representative volume element(RVE)based computational homogenization technique was used to study the tensile deformation of PRMMCs with different particle aspect ratios(AR).The influence of TRSS was assessed quantitatively via comparing simulations with or without the cooling process.It was found that the strengthening effect of TRSS was affected by the particle AR.With the average strengthening effect of TRSS,a fast method of introducing the strengthening effect of TRSS to the tensile behavior of PRMMCs was developed.The new method has reduced the computational cost by a factor 2.The effect of TRSS on continuous fiber-reinforced metal matrix composite was found to have a softening-effect during the entire tensile deformation process because of the pre-yield effect caused by the cooling process.

Study of the location of testing area in residual stress measurement by Moiré interferometry combined with hole-drilling method

This paper investigates the effect of the location of testing area in residual stress measurement by Moiréinterferometry combined with hole-drilling method.The selection of the location of the testing area is analyzed from theory and experiment.In the theoretical study,the factors which affect the surface released radial strainεr were analyzed on the basis of the formulae of the hole-drilling method,and the relations between those factors andεr were established.By combining Moiréinterferometry with the hole-drilling method,the residual stress of interference-fit specimen was measured to verify the theoretical analysis.According to the analysis results,the testing area for minimizing the error of strain measurement is determined.Moreover,if the orientation of the maximum principal stress is known,the value of strain will be measured with higher precision by the Moiréinterferometry method.

A Review of Residual Stress and Deformation Modeling for Metal Additive Manufacturing Processes

A metal additive manufacturing process results in a nearly net-shaped fabrication of parts directly from digital data.A local heat source melts the deposited material,and a part is built layer-by-layer.Residual stress and de-formation are critical issues experienced by additively manufactured parts.Modeling the additive manufacturing process provides important insights and can help determine an optimal build plan so as to minimize residual stress formation.Various approaches have been used for modeling of residual stresses,ranging from high-fidelity models to simplified models,for quicker results.This paper provides a state-of-the-art review of the approaches used to numerically model residual deformation and stresses in structures built using additive manufacturing.Fur-thermore,it describes the physical causes of residual-stress generation in an additively manufactured structure.

Residual Stress Measurement for Ion-implanted NiTi Alloy by Using Moiré Interferometry and Hole-drilling Combined Method

Residual stresses in ion-implanted NiTi alloy are measured by a combined method ofMoir6 interferometry and hole-drilling. Oxygen ions are implanted into the NiTi alloy under a voltage of 30 kV by a dose of 1.0×10^17ions/cm^2 for one hour. Subsequently, in order to avoid dimensional error, a hole is drilled exactly in the center of the sample. The distribution of residual stresses around the hole is measured. It is indicated that the method which combines the Moire interferometry with hole-drilling is able to be used to measure residual stresses produced by ion implantation.

Residual stress modeling of thin wall by laser cladding forming

The residual stress generated in the laser cladding could lead to undesirable distortions or even crack formation. In order to better understand the evolution/yielding process of stress field,a 3 D finite-element thermo-mechanical model was established for the laser cladding formation of thin wall with the 17-4 PH powder on the FV520( B) steel. The temperature field was firstly analyzed,based on which the stress field and strain field of the laser cladding forming process were analyzed.In order to validate the prediction,the final residual stress field in the obtained thin wall was tested by X-ray diffraction in comparison with the predicted results.

RECENT PROGRESS IN RESIDUAL STRESS MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Residual stress measurement is of critical significance to in-service security and the reliability of engineering components, and has been an active area of scientific interest. This paper offers a review o[ several prominent mechanical release methods for residual stress measurement and recent developments, focusing on the hole-drilling method combined with advanced optical sensing. Some promising trends for mechanical release methods are also analyzed.

The formation mechanism and the influence factor of residual stress in machining

在切进程产生的剩余压力在细工品性能上有重要影响。论文论述理论分析的一个方法以便详细解说和分析在切的剩余压力的形成机制。一个重要结论被得出积累的塑料紧张是决定性质和表面剩余的大小的主要因素，这在细工品强调。根据为剩余应力的分析模型，为剩余压力预言的一系列模拟在切 AISI 1045 钢期间被实现以便获得在表面剩余应力上把速度，切割的深度和工具边半径切成细工品的影响。并且这些影响在切从剩余应力的形成机制的观点被解释。结论让好适用性和罐头被用来在实际生产指导参数选择。

Residual stress evolution regularity in thermal barrier coatings under thermal shock loading

Residual stress evolution regularity in thermal barrier ceramic coatings （TBCs） under different cycles of thermal shock loading of 1 100℃ was investi- gated by the microscopic digital image correlation （DIC） and micro-Raman spec- troscopy, respectively. The obtained results showed that, as the cycle number of the thermal shock loading increases, the evolution of the residual stress under- goes three distinct stages： a sharp increase, a gradual change, and a reduction. The extension stress near the TBC surface is fast transformed to compressive one through just one thermal cycle. After different thermal shock cycles with peak temperature of 1 100℃, phase transformation in TBC does not happen, whereas the generation, development, evolution of the thermally grown oxide （TGO） layer and micro-cracks are the main reasons causing the evolution regularity of the residual stress.

Residual strain evaluation of curved surface by grating-transferring technique and GPA

This paper investigates an advanced grating-transferring technique combined with geometric phase analysis (GPA) for residual strain evaluation of curved surface.A standard holographic grating is first transferred to a pre-produced epoxy resin film and then consolidated to a test region of curved surface.With a rubber mold and silicone rubber the deformed grating is replicated to a sheet metal after hole-drilling for release of residual stress.After that the grating is transferred from the sheet metal to the glass plate,which would be served as an analyzer grating (specimen grating).By GPA the local strain distributions related to the phase difference between the reference grating and analyzer grating for the released stress can be evaluated.A validation test has been conducted on the weld joint of a stainless steel tube and the obtained results demonstrate the ability of the method in measuring the residual strain of curved surface.

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON CHANGE OF COLDWORKING RESIDUAL STRAIN OF HOLE IN ALUMINIUM ALLOY SHEET

An experimental study on degeneration of the coldworking residual strainduring different cyclic loadings is presented. The expenmental results obtained showthat the residual strain of squcezing dislributes under power series law ε= axb overthe horizontal line of the stress on both sides of the cenual hole. and that when the max-imum real stress at the hole is lower than the yield stress of the material. the degeneration of residual strain has a sudden change during cyclic loading, and the closer to thehole side, the more serious the degcneration.

Analysis of Stress Strain State of X-60 Pipe Weld Joints Employing Magnetic-Anisotropy Indicator of Mechanical Stress

This research presents an experimental study of analysis of stress strain state SSS of X-60 pipe weld joints employing magnetic anisotropy indicator of mechanical stresses Stress Vision (IMS) using of “before and after” comparison approach taking readings on pipe base metal, weld area and heat affected zone (HAZ) before and after hydrotest. Test results were compared with X-ray testing results for welded joints and with metallographic testing. Test results demonstrate the relevance of applied test conditions and redistribution of residual stresses. A new equation was established for estimating the residual (technological) and operating stresses in other pipelines with a tolerance of 15% in the field of elastic deformation (up to the yield point), according to Hooke law.