Local seismic culture in Iranian vernacular architecture: evidence from Yazd earthen architecture

Iran,located in one of the most earthquake-prone regions of the world,has experienced a very large number of destructive earthquakes that brought about considerable loss of human life and economic consequences.The coun‑try possesses a vast number of monumental and vernacular built heritages that are constantly threatened by earth‑quakes.As vernacular techniques for dwellings comply with the needs,comfort,utility,and functionality of people,it is expected that endemic earthquake-resistant techniques make an essential contribution to Iranian vernacular archi‑tecture.The city of Yazd presents a unique and rich vernacular for earthen construction within Iranian architectural heritage,which has resulted in the recognition of the historic fabric of the city as a World Heritage Site since 2017.Considering the importance of exploring diferent local seismic cultures worldwide,this paper introduces an essential part of Iranian local seismic culture by recognising and classifying the vernacular earthquake-resistant techniques used in the earthen architecture of the city of Yazd.The techniques were collected by surveying the historic fabric,using data available in the literature,and interviewing traditional builders and local conservators.Next,the seismic infuence of each technique was evaluated using examples from the performance of adobe constructions during the 2003 Bam earthquake.

The involvement of local communities in the conservation process of earthen architecture in the Sahel-Sahara region-the case of Djenné,Mali

Recently,many cultural aspects of some African countries have been in danger of being lost due to cultural disruptions,nonadaptive construction techniques and a lack of adequate conservation systems and strategies.These include the well-known manuscripts of Timbuktu(Tombouctou)as well as architecture,languages,beads,textiles,costumes and other cultural objects.Immaterial heritage,such as oral history,traditional music,instruments and dance,is also afected.In the northwestern part of Africa,the so-called Sahel-Sahara region,earthen architecture has played an important role in cultural identity and has been a key means of community establishment.This architectural heritage includes a wide variety of creations ranging from simple houses,granaries,and palaces to religious buildings,urban centres,cultural landscapes and archaeological sites.By studying northwestern African cultural heritage and cultural exchanges during trans-Saharan trade,we can beneft from traditional knowledge and use these teachings to build a sustainable knowledge system for earthen architecture conservation.This work is urgent since these structures are in danger of being lost,destroyed,badly conserved,or not documented.The aim of this research is to point out,through an anthropological approach,the importance of local community involvement in the conservation process.This research is based on a comparative study of diferent earthen architecture conservation spaces within the abovementioned region that have been important and were infuenced by cultural exchanges during trans-Saharan trade.In these historical towns,some architectural heritage sites have been abandoned and are in ruins,while others have been preserved solely as tourist attractions.In this paper,I introduce the case of Djennéto share our research approach.This paper provides insight into earthen architecture conservation issues and how local communities have used tangible and intangible methods to preserve cultural heritage.

Can earthen architectural heritage save us?

Contemporary architecture seems to turn its back on the past in terms of the raw materials taken from the environ‑ment,their transformation into building components and the way they are assembled to create buildings.The global challenge of preserving the environment forces us to rethink the way we produce architecture today.Within this challenge,the past shows us possible ways to fll the gap between tradition and modernity.However,we need to understand what motivates people to abandon ancestral materials and knowledge for materials that they cannot manufacture or use themselves.Is this transformation to industrial materials and forms irreversible?Is there nothing we can learn from our rich past?How can we revive endogenous knowledge to produce environmentally wise archi‑tecture?These are the questions that the authors,who have been working on the revival of earthen heritage for over 20 years,wish to answer.

Literature review on earthen vernacular heritage: contributions to a referential framework

The state of the art of earthen architecture and vernacular built heritage comprises a complex set of issues that range from fundamental problematic recognition to anthropological and cultural studies and,more recently,to technological and experimental analyses.This paper addresses the development of the feld,following the milestones of the international literature and pursuing a refective-theory approach within a historical framework.It aims to explore the main contributions that have enhanced vernacular heritage and earthen architecture as specifc domains,from pioneering public awareness essays to institutional expertise guidelines.Finally,in addition to the literature review process,this paper considers the recent corpus of recommendations from conservation management reference institutions,the updating of the operative problematic of earthen vernacular built heritage,and the relevance of local community involvement in facing increasing challenges.

Rehabilitation of historic Shibam and Zabid,Yemen as an impulse for community and economy

Conditions in Yemen involving armed confict and all kinds of structural challenges have also their impact on the fate of its built heritage.Yemen’s three World Heritage Sites have their particular signifcance,all of them representing a region with its own cultural background:Sanaa in the highlands,Zabid in the coastal Tihama,and Shibam in the remote desert valley of Hadramaut.Unlike the Old City of Sanaa,the two smaller sites struggle with the limited resources of low-developed hinterland.Both preserve a unique urban culture:Zabid with its many elements of elaborate artistry and a vernacular architecture highly adapted to tropical conditions,and Shibam as a dense structure of unique mud-built tower houses.Preservation in a background of poverty,weak capacities of ofcial structures,and even war destruction risks can only succeed in connection with active engagement and commitment of the community,which however is heterogeneous and heritage preservation is not always their priority.Efcient strategies must therefore link local livelihood interests to preservation concerns.Market quarter and housing rehabilitation in both cities in last years had wide backing,supported income and resulted in visible upgrading of the very heart of these cities—showing locals recovery of historic structures has its potentials—even in the extreme conditions of Yemen.