Ectoparasites and other invertebrates in the nests of the Hair-crested Drongo (Dicrurus hottentottus)

Ectoparasites and other invertebrates are known to play a role in bird behavior and in evolutionary adaptations such as preening and foraging strategies. We conducted an exploratory study by macro- and microscopically evaluating the nests of Hair-crested Drongos(Dicrurus hottentottus) at Dongzhai National Nature Reserve, Henan Province, China in 2011 to determine if there was a presence of invertebrates. We developed a modified funneling technique to collect invertebrate samples and reduce contamination from outside sources in a field setting. We found several species of ectoparasites(lice and ticks) and other invertebrates(springtails and rove beetles) within the nests. Our findings warrant further investigation as to whether or not the presence of invertebrates in the nests of Hair-crested Drongos plays a role in the adaptation of the unique nest dismantling behavior exhibited by this species.

Acarine ectoparasites of Panti Forest Reserve in Johore,Malaysia

Objective:To identify the presence of acarine ectoparasites and determine whether there is any potential public health risk in Panti Forest Reserve,Johore,Malaysia.Methods:Trapping of animals and avifauna was conducted simultaneously along 5 expedition trails using 150 wire traps,10 harp traps and 30 mist nets for 6 consecutive nights.A total of 140 animals consisting of 7 species of birds,19 species of bats,6 species of rodents and 1 species of tree-shrew as well as 8 myriapods were examined.Results:Infestation rates of ticks,mesostigmatid mites and chiggers on animals examined were 24.3%,28.6%and 27.9%,respectively.Infestation on bats was low(1.5%) and none occurred on birds.Majority of ticks extracted were at immature stages(78.9%). Genera of ticks on animals were Amblyomma,Dermacentor,Haemaphysalis and Ixodes.Ixodes granulatus was the only species of licks identified from the animals.Examination of ticks under vegetation revealed 54%adults leading to identification of 3 species of ticks.A total of 7 species of mesostigmatid mites were found.6 species were on rodent,Maxomys mrifer and another one species,Laelaps nuttalli was found only on Leopoldamys sabanus.Laelaps sanguisugus was the only mesostigmatid found infesting tree-shrews.Seven genera of chiggers were identified.From this,5 genera were on rodents,4 genera on tree-shrews and 1 genus on a bat.Conclusions:A total of 16 genera,2 sub-genus and 14 species of acarine ectoparasites were found in this area. Findings of the survey demonstrate the presence of three spesies of acarine ectoparasites which have potential health risk i.e.Ixodes granulalus,Laelaps nuttalli and Leptotrombidium deliense.

Ectoparasite communities on Tupaia belangeri (Scandentia:Tupaiidae) in surrounding areas of Erhai Lake in Yunnan,China

Objective:To investigate the ectoparasite communities on Tupaia belangeri (T. belangeri) in the surrounding areas of Erhai Lake and their potential importance in medical and veterinary science. Methods: Different locations in surrounding areas of Erhai Lake in Yunnan were selected as the investigation spots. T. belangeri were randomly captured with baited mouse cages and then brought to the laboratory for identification according to their body shape, size and color, and measurements such as the lengths of their body, ear and hind feet. Ectoparasites on them were collected and identified to determine the species under microscope after specimens were mounted on slides, with the clearing and drying process completed. The constituent ratio (C), prevalence (P) and average ectoparasite abundance (A) were used to test the prevalence and density of ectoparasites; Non-parametric Mann-Whitney U-tests were used to test the differences in the abundance and richness of ectoparasites between female and male hosts; Spearman correlation analysis was used to analyze the relationship between ectoparasites and the body parameters of hosts. Results: There was very high species diversity of ectoparasites found on T. belangeri and some species of ectoparasites were reported associated with human diseases. A high proportion (88%) of 107 T. belangeri was found to be infested with ectoparasites. A total of 75 species of ectoparasites on them were collected, including 58 species of chigger mite, 12 species of gamasid mite, 4 species of flea and 1 species of sucking louse. Within this ectoparasite complex, 13 species were previously reported to be vectors of human disease agents. Non-parametric Mann-Whitney U-tests showed significant differences between male and female T. belangeri in terms of the abundance and richness of total ectoparasites. However, the species richness and abundance of chigger mites, sucking lice, fleas or gamasid mites presented no significant differences between male and female hosts. Spearman correlation analysis showed that none of correlations were observed between host body parameters with abundance and richness of total ectoparasites, chigger mites, suckinglice, fleas or gamatid mites. Conclusion: The results suggest that there is very high species diversity of ectoparasites on T. belangeri, consisting mainly of communities of sucking lice, fleas, chiggers and gamasid mites.

Ectoparasites of lesser mouse eared bat,Myotis blythii from Kermanshah Iran

Objective:To identify the ectoparasits of lesser mouse eared bat,Myotis blythii inside the MahiDasth cave in Kermanshah province,Iran.Methods:A total of 30 lasser mouse eared bat(Myotis blythii) in a cave close to Kermanshah city were hunted with special net and were transported to the laboratory.After anesthetizing by chloroform,ectoparasites from these bats were removed and identified.Results:The ectoparasites include flies,ticks and mites.The 39 identified flies belonged to two families including Strebilidae(7.7%) and Nyctmbiidae(92.3%).A total number of 5 ticks of larval,nymphal and adult stages of Ixodes vespertilionis and 18 mites from Spiturnicidae family were identified.Conclusions:The result of this study is a clue for the identification of ectoparasites from bats and implication of possible prevention measures for diseases transmitted by ectoparasites.

Preliminary investigation on rodent–ectoparasite associations in the highlands of Tigray, Northern Ethiopia:implications for potential zoonoses

We studied associations between rodents and their arthropod ectoparasites in crop fields and household compounds in the highlands of Tigray,Northern Ethiopia.Ectoparasite infestation indices,such as percent infestation,mean abundance,prevalence and host preferences,were calculated for each taxon.In total,172 rodents from crop fields and 97 from household compounds were trapped.Rodent species and numbers trapped from the crop fields and household compounds were Mastomys awashensis(Lavrenchenko,Likhnova&Baskevich,1998)(88 and 44),Arvicanthis dembeensis(Ruppel,1842)(63 and 37)and Acomys sp.(21 and 16),respectively.A total of 558 insects and acarids(belonging to 11 taxa)were recovered from the rodents trapped in the crop fields,and 296 insects and acarid(belonging to 6 taxa)from the rodents trapped in the household compounds.Approximately 66%of the rodents trapped from the crop fields and 47%of those trapped from the household compounds were infested with ectoparasites.Laelaps sp.(64.9%)and Xenopsylla sp.(20.6%)comprised the highest proportion of the ectoparasites recovered in the crop fields,and the same ectoparasites,but in reverse order,comprised the highest proportions in the household compounds(Xenopsylla[50.3%]and Laelaps sp.[29%]).Our study revealed that crop fields and household compounds in the highlands share similar rodents and several ectoparasites.Furthermore,at least 1 of the rodent species and some of the ectoparasites identified in this study were reported to have posed medical and veterinary threats in other parts of Ethiopia and neighboring countries.

Survey on ectoparasites of Aphanius sophiae(Cyprinodontidae)from Southern Iran

Objective:To determine the infesation of Aphanius sophiae(A.sophiae)with ectoparasite for the first time from Iran as a little attention has been paid to parasitic infection of A.sophiae which is an native species found in the endorheic Kor River Basin,Fars Province,Southern Iran.Methods:A total of 70 A.sophiae(35 males and 35 females)were collected using dip net in May 2010 from Ghadamgah Spring-stream,Southern Iran.After fixation,the external surface of each fish was examined for ectoparasite through stereomicroscope.Results:Out of 70 fish specimens,two females(2.86%)were infected with three Lernaea spp.copepod or anchor worm.The ectoparasite prevalence rate,intensity and abundance were estimated 2.860,1.500 and 0.043 respectively.Conclusion:This study reports infestation of A.sophiae by Lernaea spp.for the first time in Iran.Further parasitological investigations are required to determine ectoparasites of A.sophiae in different parts of Iran due to its importance and numerous epizootics occurring among the most important farmed fish in various parts of the world.

Within-brood body size and immunological differences in Blue Tit(Cyanistes caeruleus)nestlings relative to ectoparasitism

Several ectoparasites parasitise nestlings decreasing their body condition,growth and survival.To minimise any loss of fitness due to ectoparasites,birds have developed a wide variety of defence mechanisms,potentially including hatching asynchrony.According to the Tasty Chick Hypothesis(TCH),the cost of parasitism would be reduced if ectoparasites tend to eat on less immunocompetent nestlings,typically the last-hatched chick in asynchronously hatched broods,as they are in poor body condition.Two predictions of the TCH are that immune capacity is lower in smaller nestlings than in larger ones and that parasites should provoke a more negative effect on smaller nestlings.Here,we test these predictions in a population of Blue Tits(Cyanistes caeruleus)whose broods are parasitised by Hen Fleas(Ceratophyllus gallinae)and Blowflies(Protocalliphora azurea).We recorded the presence of both ectoparasites and analysed the immunocompetence(number of leucocytes per 10,000 erythrocytes and cutaneous immune response to phytohaemagglutinin)and body condition of smaller and larger nestlings within individual broods.The leucocyte count was higher in smaller nestlings than in larger ones,whereas the cutaneous immune response did not differ between smaller and larger nestlings.Smaller nestlings,but not larger nestlings,had lower body mass when fleas were present.Blowflies,by contrast,had no detectable negative effect on nestlings.Overall,our findings provide partial support to the TCH.Lower immune capacity in smaller nestlings than in larger ones was not supported,but Hen Fleas seemed to negatively impact on smaller nestlings more than on larger ones.

Distribution and Identification of Ixodid Tick Species on Livestock in Northern Pakistan

Identification of lxodid tick species on livestock in two districts, viz., D.I. Khan and Lakki Marwat of Northern Pakistan were made during the period from March to November 2009 through animals＇ survey and questionnaire. The main tick species were Amblyomma （14.3%）, Boophilus microplus （l 8.5%） and Hyalomma anatolicum and H. dromedarii （67.2%）. Out of 3009 collected ticks, the highest number of female （88.7%） and the lowest of males （ l 1.3%） belong to Boophilus; the lowest number of female （92.4%） and the highest of males （77.5%） belong to Amblyomma. However, cows were more susceptible than buffaloes and camels ranked third to ticks infestation. Moreover, cows, buffalos, goats and sheep harbored mixed infestation （had more than one type of ticks）, however, camels and donkey harbored single infestation （had only one type of tick）. An emerging ethno-veterinary or traditional remedy is poultry keeping for ticks＇ elimination in Lakki Marwat. The results of this research will be helped in taking appropriate measures to reduce tick infestation and to improve management practices. Hence, it will help to increase farm productivity and farmers income.

Parasites Status of Village Chickens (<i>Gallus gallus domesticus</i>) in Selected Communities in Yenagoa Local Government Area of Bayelsa State, Nigeria

Parasites constitute a major obstacle to poultry production, leading to significant losses in many poultry farms. This study investigated the parasites status of village chicken (Gallus domesticus) collected from selected communities in Yenagoa Local Government Area of Bayelsa State Nigeria, during January to March 2020. A total of 35 birds were collected from 5 communities: Igbogeni, Tombia, Agudama, Akenfa and Opolo to assess their parasitic status. The procession of the chicken and the identifications of both ecto and endo parasites followed standard techniques. From the results, the prevalence of the ecto parasites and the endo parasites in the chickens were 85.71% and 88.57% respectively. The ectoparasites species in order of increasing frequency were Lice (37.65%), Fleas (32.94%), and Mites (29.41%). Mixed infection of lice & fleas accounted for 34.12%. The prevalence of endo parasites was: Nematode (71.59%) and Cestode (28.41%) respectively. The species specific prevalence of the endo parasites encountered were Ascaridia galli (44.4%), Heterakis gallinarum (22.2%), Capillaria spp. (33.3%), Davainea proglottina (56%), Raillientina spp. (44%) respectively. This present study has provided an insight into parasitic infection of domestic birds across communities in Yenagoa Local Government Area of Bayelsa State Nigeria and recommended that an intensive health education on their public health implications in the spread disease causing pathogens among humans be carried out.

Ocurrence of Entomopathogenic Fungus from Flea Ctenocephalides canis(Siphonaptera:Pulicidae)

The objective of this study was to isolate entomopathogenic fungus from fleas (Ctenocephalides canis Curtis) collected from Cannis familiaris specimens. From 60 collected fleas, two dead insects presented white mycelia growth on the body surface, changing to a creamy color as time passed;the insects presented a mummified aspect, typical characteristic caused by entomopathogenic fungus. This fungus was identified as Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo-Crivelli) Vuillemin by their mycelia characteristics, macro- and micro-morphology. Up to our knowledge, this is the first report of entomopathogenic fungus isolated from adult C. canis fleas.

Aquatic Phoretic Mites (Acari: Hydrachnidia) Associated with Ectoparasitism of Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in the Midwest Region of Brazil

Water mites (Hydrachnidia) are common external parasites of the medically important mosquitoes (Culicidae). Between April 2014 and April 2015, 64 mites from three genus, Arrenurus 71.9%, Limnochares 3.1%, and Hydrachna 25.0%, were collected from female mosquitoes in two rural locations near Cuiabá, Mato Grosso, Brazil. Dipterous species parasitized by water mites belonging to seven species: Anopheles (Nys.) darling, An. evansae, Aedes (Och.) scapularis, Ae. serratus, Mansonia (Man.) wilsoni, Psorophora (Jan.) ferox, Ps. varipes. The most common specimens to accommodate the water mites were Anopheles (Nys.) darlingi and Psorophora (Jan.) varipes. The prevalence of parasitism of mosquitoes by water mites found in this study was less than 5. However, few studies have addressed the ecological role of mites and their biotopes, as well as host-parasite interactions in Brazil.

Aquatic Phoretic Mites (Acari: Hydrachnidia) Associated with Ectoparasitism of Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in the Midwest Region of Brazil

Water mites (Hydrachnidia) are common external parasites of the medically important mosquitoes (Culicidae). Between April 2014 and April 2015, 64 mites from three genus, Arrenurus 71.9%, Limnochares 3.1%, and Hydrachna 25.0%, were collected from female mosquitoes in two rural locations near Cuiabá, Mato Grosso, Brazil. Dipterous species parasitized by water mites belonging to seven species: Anopheles (Nys.) darling, An. evansae, Aedes (Och.) scapularis, Ae. serratus, Mansonia (Man.) wilsoni, Psorophora (Jan.) ferox, Ps. varipes. The most common specimens to accommodate the water mites were Anopheles (Nys.) darlingi and Psorophora (Jan.) varipes. The prevalence of parasitism of mosquitoes by water mites found in this study was less than 5. However, few studies have addressed the ecological role of mites and their biotopes, as well as host-parasite interactions in Brazil.

On four epibiotic peritrichous ciliates(Protozoa,Ciliophora)found in Lake Weishan Wetland:morphological and molecular data support the establishment of a new genus,Parapiosoma gen.nov.,and two new species

During a study on the diversity of ciliated protists in Lake Weishan Wetland,the largest wetland in northern China,four epibiotic sessilid peritrichs were isolated from aquatic host animals.Two of them,i.e.,Epistylis cambari Kellicott,1885 and Epistylis lwof Fauré-Fremiet,1943,were known species whereas the other two,i.e.,Parapiosoma typicum gen.nov.,sp.nov.and Orborhabdostyla gracilis sp.nov.,are new to science.The new genus Parapiosoma gen.nov.is characterized by its branched non-contractile stalk,everted peristomial lip,obconical macronucleus and transverse silverlines.Two species are assigned to the new genus,namely Parapiosoma typicum sp.nov.and Parapiosoma gasterostei(Fauré-Fremiet,1905)comb.nov.Morphologically,P.typicum sp.nov.is recognized by its goblet-shaped zooids,single-layered peristomial lip,dichotomously branched stalk,and infundibular polykinety 3(P3)containing three equal-length rows.Orborhabdostyla gracilis sp.nov.is characterized by its slender zooid,curved macronucleus,and three equal-length rows in infundibular P3.Improved diagnoses and redescriptions of E.cambari and E.lwof are provided including,for the frst time,data on the ciliature of E.cambari.Phylogenetic analyses based on SSU rDNA,ITS1-5.8S rDNA-ITS2,and LSU rDNA sequence data strongly support the assertion that the family Epistylididae comprises morphospecies with diferent evolutionary lineages and indicate that Parapiosoma gen.nov.may represent a new taxon at family level.

Seasonal changes in the parasite prevalence of a small Malagasy lemur species (Lepilemur edwardsi)

Parasitic infections can impact thefitness of individuals and can have influence on animals’population dynamics.An individuals’parasite prevalence often changes depending on external or seasonal changes,for example,rainfall and ambient temperatures,but also on internal changes,for example,changes in body condition.In this study we aimed to identify the environmental factors that may influence the intestinal parasite and ectoparasite prevalence of the folivorous Malagasy primate species,Lepilemur edwardsi,living in a seasonal dry deciduous forest.Species living in this habitat have to adapt to seasonal changes of ambient temperature,with almost no precipitation during the dry season and hence strongfluctuations of resource availability throughout the year.We sampled the feces and ectoparasites of L.edwardsi throughout the year.Intestinal parasite prevalence increased from the wet to the dry season and was highest in the late dry season,which might be due to the accompanying decrease in diet quality.Conversely,ectoparasite prevalence decreased in the dry season,presumably due to the prevailing unfavorable environmental conditions for the development of ectoparasites(i.e.,mites and ticks).Paired with the higher resting metabolism and stress level of L.edwardsi during the late dry season,it seems that this species may struggle when dry seasons intensify in its habitat.

Home,dirty home:effect of old nest material on nest-site selection and breeding performance in a cavity-nesting raptor

The quality of a breeding site may have major fitness consequences.A fundamental step to understanding the process of nest-site selection is the identification of the information individuals use to choose high-quality nest sites.For secondary cavity-nesting bird species that do not add nest lining material,organic remains (faeces,pellets)accumulated inside nest cavities during previous breeding events may be a cue for high-quality nest-sites,as they contain information about past successful breeding and may improve thermal insulation of eggs during incubation.However,cavities in which breeding was successful might also contain more nest-dwelling ectoparasites than unoccupied cavities, offering an incentive for prospective parents to avoid them.We exposed breeding cavity-nesting lesser kestrels (Falco naumanni)to nestbox dyads consisting of a dirty (with a thick layer of organic substrate) and a clean nestbox (without organic material).Dirty nestboxes were strongly preferred,being occupied earlier and more frequently than clean ones.Hatching success in dirty nestboxes was significantly higher than in clean ones,suggesting a positive effect of organic nest material on incubation efficiency, while nestbox dirtiness did not significantly affect clutch and brood size.Nestlings from dirty nestboxes had significantly higher ectoparasite load than those from clean nestboxes soon after egg hatching,but this difference was not evident a few days later.Nest substrate did not significantly affect nestling growth.We concluded that nest substrate is a key driver of nest-site choice in lesser kestrels,although the adaptive value of such a strong preference appears elusive and may be context-dependent.

Modularity and specialization in bat-fly interaction networks are remarkably consistent across patches within urbanized landscapes and spatial scales

Patterns of specialization and the structure of interactions between bats and ectoparasitic flies have been studied mostly on non-urban environments and at local scales.Thus,how anthropogenic disturbances influence species interactions and network structure in this system remain poorly understood.Here,we investigated patterns of interaction between Phyllostomidae bats and ectoparasitic Streblidae flies,and variations in network specialization and structure across Cerrado patches within urbanized landscapes in Brazil and between local and regional scales.We found high similarity in the richness and composition of bat and fly species across communities,associated with low turnover of interactions between networks.The high specialization of bat-streblid interactions resulted in little connected and modular networks,with the emergence of modules containing subsets of species that interact exclusively or primarily with each other.Such similarities in species and interaction composition and network structure across communities and scales suggest that bat-fly interactions within Cerrado patches are little affected by the degree of human modification in the surrounding matrix.This remarkable consistency is likely promoted by specific behaviors,the tolerance of Phyllostomidae bats to surrounding urbanized landscapes as well as by the specificity of the streblid-bat interactions shaped over evolutionary time.

Trace back the origin of recent insect orders——evidence from the Middle Jurassic Daohugou Biota

The Middle Jurassic Daohugou Biota has yielded very rich fossil plants, vertebrates, and inver tebrates. The particularly famous fossil insects are represented by at least 24 orders, revealing one of the most diverse Mesozoic insect communities. Among them, the occurrence of Emhioptera, Mantophasma- todea, and Siphonaptera increased respectively as supported by fossil evidence from Daohugou. Moreover, the early co-evolution of ectoparasites and their hosts may be analyzed by the presence of various giant fleas and the co-occurred potential hosts such as mammals, feather dinosaurs, and pterosaurs from Daohugou.

Manipulation of parasite load induces significant changes in the structural-based throat color of male iberian green lizards

The honesty of structural-based ornaments is controversial. Sexual selection theory predicts that the honesty of a sexual signal relies on its cost of production or maintenance. Therefore, environmental factors with negative impact on individuals could generate high costs and affect the expres- sion of these sexual signals. In this sense, parasites are a main cost for their hosts. To probe the effect of parasites on the structural-based coloration of a lacertid species Lacerta schreiberi, we have experimentally removed ticks from a group of male Iberian green lizards using an acaricide treatment （i.e., the broad-use insecticide fipronil）. All individuals were radio-tracked and recaptured after 15 days to study changes in coloration in both the ultraviolet （UV）-blue （structural-based） and UV-yellow （structural and pigment-based） ornamentations after manipulation, as well as changes in endoand ectoparasitic load and body condition. Additionally, after the experiment, we measured the skin inflammatory response to a mitogen. The fipronil treatment was effective in reducing ticks and it was associated with a significant reduction of hemoparasite load. Throughout the season, individuals treated with fipronil tended to maintain the brightness of the UV-blue throat coloration while control lizards tended to increase it. However, individuals treated with fipronil that were not infected with hemoparasites significantly reduced the brightness of the UV-blue throat color ation. Individuals with a higher initial tick load exhibited a lower UV saturation increment （UV-blue） and a higher brightness increment （UV-yellow） during the experiment. Overall these results experimentally support the idea that parasites adversely influence the expression of the structural-based coloration of male Iberian green lizards. This adds evidence to the hypothesis that sexual ornaments in lizards function as honest signals.

Effects of macroparasites on the energy allocation of reproducing small mammals

Reproduction,including lactation,is the most costly activity in terms of energy expenditure in female mammals.Consequently,the energy requirements of the reproducing female may not be met at this time,especially if other energy demanding activities are occurring concomitantly.Such activities could be the activation and maintenance of an immune system in response to parasitic infestation.These protective processes are energetically demanding and require trade-off decisions among competing energy demands.In the case of a reproducing mammal,the trade-offs occur mainly between defence against parasites and reproductive costs of the host.In this paper,I discuss the effects of macroparasites on the energy allocation of reproducing small mammals.

Changes in Philornis infestation behavior threaten Darwin＇s finch survival

The conservation behavior framework is useful to identify key linkages between behavior and conservation practice. We apply this framework to a novel host-parasite system on the Galapagos Islands and ask if there have been changes in parasite oviposition behavior and host mortality patterns across the first decade （2004-2013） of its known association. The Dipteran parasite Philornis downsi was first discovered in Darwin＇s finch nests in 1997 and is the biggest threat to the survival of Galapagos land birds. Host mortality has increased over the past decade. In Dipterans, pupation and pupae size are determined by access to host resources. Here, we test the hypothesis that P downsi flies are laying eggs in finch nests earlier in the nestling phase to maximize larval feeding time and therefore chance of pupation success before host death. The results show fewer 1st instar larvae later in the host nesting cycle in support of earlier egg laying behavior by female flies. Between 2004 and 2013, parasite intensity increased from -28 to -48 parasites per nest, host mortality increased from -50% to -90%, and host age at death decreased from -11 to -5 days. The earlier age at host death was correlated with fewer pupae （from -50% to -20%） and smaller pupae size （-10% decrease）. Changes in parasite behavior reveal new fitness costs to both the parasite and Darwin＇s finches. These findings un- derscore the need for urgent conservation action to save Darwin＇s finches from extinction due to a novel, lethal and introduced parasite [Current Zoology 60 （4）： 542-550, 2014].