Comparisons of microstructure and elemental composition of eggshells among wild plover populations

Reproduction investment is a prominent trade-off in life-history theory and is subject to strong selection pressure.The avian eggshell,as a crucial barrier between the bird embryo and the surrounding environment,undergoes optimization under different environmental selection regimes to ensure the successful development of embryos,which can be linked to local adaptation.Therefore,understanding the variation in eggshell microstructure and composition in wild bird populations living in contrasting ambient environments is of great significance.In this study,we utilized electron microscope ultrastructure measurement and elemental analyses to measure and compare the microstructure and element composition of eggshells from three wild plover populations(Charadrius alexandrinus and C.dealbatus)residing in heterogeneous habitats across varied climatic zones.These populations include the high-altitude Qinghai Lake population,the temperate coastal Tangshan population,and the tropical coastal Zhanjiang population.Our findings revealed that the palisade layer was thinner in the Qinghai Lake population compared to its lowland populations.This difference might be attributed to hypoxia which facilitates the hatching process by allowing chicks to easily break through their shells.Additionally,the variations in the elemental composition of the eggshells among populations well reflected the distribution of element content in different geographical regions.The Qinghai Lake population displayed low zinc and low manganese levels but high calcium levels,while the Zhanjiang population exhibited high zinc,high iron,high manganese,and high phosphorus levels.Furthermore,these variations in elemental composition could also account for the observed microstructural differences among populations.Collectively,we propose that the dissimilarities in eggshell microstructure and elemental composition among populations could be attributed to adaptations to different environmental conditions.Our findings lay the groundwork for future research to explore the mechanisms behind the variations in eggshell characteristics among wild bird populations,and contribute to a broader understanding of biodiversity mechanisms.

Description and Phylogenetic Position of Dinosaur Eggshells from the Luanchuan Area of Western Henan Province,China

Here, we examine 145 dinosaur eggshells from a new fossil locality in the Qiupa Formation （Upper Cretaceous） of the Luanchuan area in western Henan Province, China. The eggshells display elongatoolithid macro- and microstructures, including ridges and nodes on the outer surface, two ultrastructurai layers, and an undulatory boundary between the mammillary and continuous layers. A phylogenic analysis shows that the Luanchuan eggshells belong to the ooclade Elongatoolithidae. Within Elongatoolithidae, the thickness ratio of the mammillary layer to the entire eggshell, and the porosity of the Luanchuan eggshells are comparable to the oogenera Macroolithus and Elongatoolithus. There is no direct evidence for the taxonomic identity of the Luanchuan eggshells; however, they were likely laid by oviraptorids based on their phylogenetic position and their similarities with known oviraptorid eggs.

New palaeoclimatic insights on the Late Cretaceous environments of Mongolia based on the isotope data (δ^13C,δ^18O) of dinosaur eggshells and pedogenic carbonates from Bayn Dzak section

Isotopic data obtained from the dinosaur eggshells and pedogenic nodules(pedonodules)are interpreted in terms of palaeoclimatology.The material studied originated from the Bayn Dzak locality,Southern Gobi Aimak,Mongolia,having Late Cretaceous(Campanian)age.Stratigraphically the Bayn Dzak locality belongs to the Djadokhta Formation.All the present data(lithology,type of paleosols,FPS-profiles,geochemistry),and the isotopic characteristics of the selected samples show unequivocally that the environments of the Bayn Dzak area in Late Cretaceous(Campanian)time were warm to summer-hot,seasonally dry.Wet seasons(most probably,which took place in the winter time)were not longer than two months with not more than 400 mm precipitation per year.The distribution of isotope data in the dinosaur eggshells show the main relation,which is the dependence ofδ^13C andδ^18O values,i.e.specimens with heavy carbon isotope ratios are characterized by lighter oxygen isotope composition and conversely.Thus,theδ^13C andδ^18O values of the dinosaur eggshells display a clear positive correlation.It may be consequent both with the difference of the isotope composition of diet of the egg-lying animals modified by physicochemical isotope fractionation due to metabolism and changes in the isotope environment,and/or diagenetic alteration of the eggshell carbonate.Obtained isotopic data on the studied dinosaur eggshell fragments and the soil carbonates lend support to our assumption that diagenesis did not play significant role in changing the isotopic values.The distribution ofδ^13C andδ^18O values in eggshells and in pedogenic carbonates shows the visible opposite dependencies.

Unhatched and Hatched Eggshells of the Chinese Cobra Naja atra

Changes in structure and composition of the eggshell resulting from embryonic mobilization of minerals from the eggshell are found in all oviparous reptiles studied thus far. In this study, we measured samples of unhatched and hatched eggshells of the Chinese cobra Naja atra to determine the percentage of ash and the phase composition of calcium carbonate. The mean percentage of ash was significantly higher in unhatched eggshells （24.6%） than in hatched eggshells （22.3%）. The dominant phase in unhatched eggshells was the calcite form of calcium carbonate. In addition to the peaks of calcite, a few small peaks were found to be caused by the aragonite and vaterite phases of calcium carbonate, implying that there are small amounts of aragonite and vaterite in the eggshell. The concentration of the various phases calculated from the intensity of the X-ray diffraction spectra allowed the estimation that percentages of calcite, aragonite and vaterite were about 92%, 4% and 4%, respectively. Hatched eggshells produced similar spectral characteristics as unhatched eggshells, with one exception. The dominant phase composition in the hatched eggshell was also calcite, but the amount of the aragonite phase had a marked increase. Our study adds evidence that embryonic mobilization of minerals from the eggshell may result in changes in structure of the eggshell.

Carbon and Oxygen Isotopic Compositions of the Carbonate Rocks and the Dinosaur Eggshells in the Cretaceous Red Beds and Their Implication for Paleoenvironment

The Cretaceous is one of the important periods of global drastic changes in geological history, and the paleoclimate and paleoenvironment in the period are now frontier research fields in geoscience. The record of the Cretaceous marine facies has been taken as a focal dissected object by 'Global Sedimentary Geological Program (GSGP)'. But the terrestrial sedimentary rocks were mainly formed in China during the Cretaceous,

Decreased eggshell strength caused by impairment of uterine calcium transport coincide with higher bone minerals and quality in aged laying hens

Background Deteriorations in eggshell and bone quality are major challenges in aged laying hens.This study compared the differences of eggshell quality,bone parameters and their correlations as well as uterine physiologi-cal characteristics and the bone remodeling processes of hens laying eggs of different eggshell breaking strength to explore the mechanism of eggshell and bone quality reduction and their interaction.A total of 24074-week-old Hy-line Brown laying hens were selected and allocated to a high(HBS,44.83±1.31 N)or low(LBS,24.43±0.57 N)eggshell breaking strength group.Results A decreased thickness,weight and weight ratio of eggshells were observed in the LBS,accompanied with ultrastructural deterioration and total Ca reduction.Bone quality was negatively correlated with eggshell quality,marked with enhanced structures and increased components in the LBS.In the LBS,the mammillary knobs and effective layer grew slowly.At the initiation stage of eggshell calcification,a total of 130 differentially expressed genes(DEGs,122 upregulated and 8 downregulated)were identified in the uterus of hens in the LBS relative to those in the HBS.These DEGs were relevant to apoptosis due to the cellular Ca overload.Higher values of p62 protein level,caspase-8 activity,Bax protein expression and lower values of Bcl protein expression and Bcl/Bax ratio were seen in the LBS.TUNEL assay and hematoxylin-eosin staining showed a significant increase in TUNEL-positive cells and tissue damages in the uterus of the LBS.Although few DEGs were identified at the growth stage,similar uterine tissue damages were also observed in the LBS.The expressions of runt-related transcription factor 2 and osteocal-cin were upregulated in humeri of the LBS.Enlarged diameter and more structural damages of endocortical bones and decreased ash were observed in femurs of the HBS.Conclusion The lower eggshell breaking strength may be attributed to a declined Ca transport due to uterine tissue damages,which could affect eggshell calcification and lead to a weak ultrastructure.Impaired uterine Ca transport may result in reduced femoral bone resorption and increased humeral bone formation to maintain a higher mineral and bone quality in the LBS.

Stable isotopic studies of dinosaur eggshells from the Nanxiong Basin, South China

Stable carbon and oxygen isotopes have been observed in dinosaur eggshell samples, identified as Macroolithus yaotunensis, collected in two sections of the Nanxiong Basin, Guangdong Province, South China. Multiple positive δ 18O perturbations that occurred during the K/T transition of about 150 ka suggest that there may have been at least three periods of the extreme dry climate with a mean annual air temperature over 27℃. δ 13C ranges from -8.37‰ to -11.60‰ of the dinosaur eggshells, added to the metabolic enrichment of 16‰, may indicate that the dinosaurs represented by this type of eggshells probably consumed the plant species of C3 type with the δ13C values of -24.3‰- -27.6‰. Moreover, the trend toward more negative δ13C values of the eggshells during the K/T transition could be an indirect consequence of a lasting increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration.

Chitin synthase 1 and five cuticle protein genes are involved in serosal cuticle formation during early embryogenesis to enhance eggshells in Nilaparvata lugens

Many holo-and hemimetabolous insects enhance their eggshells during embryogenesis by forming a serosal cuticle(SC).To date,scholarly understanding of the SC composition and SC-related gene functions has been limited,especially for hemimetabolous insects.In this study,we initially performed transmission electron microscopic(TEM)observation and chitin staining of the SC in Nilaparvata lugens,a hemimetabolous rice pest known as the brown planthopper(BPH).We confirmed that the SC was a chitin-rich lamellar structure deposited gradually during the early embryogenesis.Parental RNA interference(RNAi)against Nilaparvata lugens chitin synthase 1(NlCHS1)in newly emerged and matured females resulted in decreases of egg hatchability by 100%and 76%,respectively.Ultrastructural analyses revealed loss of the lamellar structure of the SC in dsNlCHS1-treated eggs.According to temporal expression profiles,five cuticle protein coding genes,NlugCpr1/2/3/8/90,were specifically or highly expressed during the SC formation period,and NlugCpr1/2/3/90 were further detected in 72 h eggshells extract by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry.NlugCpr2/3/90 were likely three SC-specific cuticle proteins.TEM observations of the SC following parental RNAi against NlugCpr1/2/3/8/90 demonstrated that NlugCpr3/8/90 were essential for SC formation.The study provided an understanding of the SC formation process and SC-related cuticle proteins in BPHs,which offer potential targets for pest control in the egg stage as well.

Enhancing Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) Fruit Yield and Quality and Blossom End Rot Control Using Different Biological Calcium Sources

Cultivated for its richness in nutrients, tomato culture is demanding fertilizer, especially in calcium. Calcium deficiencies and physiological disorders cause serious diseases in tomatoes. Blossom end rot (BER), in susceptible cultivars, may cause severe economic losses. The goal of this study is to determine the effect of three organic calcium sources on the growth and quality of fruit production of tomatoes. Egg, snail and sea shell powders and extracts have been used as biological fertilizers. The experiment was conducted in a block factorial trial with three replications. The trials comprised two factors: calcium sources and calcium source form (powder and extract). The results showed that the growth parameters and yield were improved by the calcium source, whatever the form. Also, BER was lower in plants treated with calcium contrary to the control. However, plants treated with eggshells showed the best growth (mean) and the lowest rate (0.40%) of BER than the snail and sea shell.

Enhancing Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) Fruit Yield and Quality and Blossom End Rot Control Using Different Biological Calcium Sources

Cultivated for its richness in nutrients, tomato culture is demanding fertilizer, especially in calcium. Calcium deficiencies and physiological disorders cause serious diseases in tomatoes. Blossom end rot (BER), in susceptible cultivars, may cause severe economic losses. The goal of this study is to determine the effect of three organic calcium sources on the growth and quality of fruit production of tomatoes. Egg, snail and sea shell powders and extracts have been used as biological fertilizers. The experiment was conducted in a block factorial trial with three replications. The trials comprised two factors: calcium sources and calcium source form (powder and extract). The results showed that the growth parameters and yield were improved by the calcium source, whatever the form. Also, BER was lower in plants treated with calcium contrary to the control. However, plants treated with eggshells showed the best growth (mean) and the lowest rate (0.40%) of BER than the snail and sea shell.

Adjusting phosphate feeding regimen according to daily rhythm increases eggshell quality via enhancing medullary bone remodeling in laying hens

Background Body phosphorus metabolism exhibits a circadian rhythm over the 24-h daily cycle.The egg laying behavior makes laying hens a very special model for investigating phosphorus circadian rhythms.There is lack of information about the impact of adjusting phosphate feeding regimen according to daily rhythm on the phosphorus homeostasis and bone remodeling of laying hens.Methods and results Two experiments were conducted.In Exp.1,Hy-Line Brown laying hens(n=45)were sampled according the oviposition cycle(at 0,6,12,and 18 h post-oviposition,and at the next oviposition,respectively;n=9 at each time point).Diurnal rhythms of body calcium/phosphorus ingestions and excretions,serum calcium/phosphorus levels,oviduct uterus calcium transporter expressions,and medullary bone(MB)remodeling were illustrated.In Exp.2,two diets with different phosphorus levels(0.32%and 0.14%non-phytate phosphorus(NPP),respectively)were alternately presented to the laying hens.Briefly,four phosphorus feeding regimens in total(each included 6 replicates of 5 hens):(1)fed 0.32%NPP at both 09:00 and 17:00;(2)fed 0.32%NPP at 09:00 and 0.14%NPP at 17:00;(3)fed 0.14%NPP at 09:00 and 0.32%NPP at 17:00;(4)fed 0.14%NPP at both 09:00 and 17:00.As a result,the regimen fed 0.14%NPP at 09:00 and 0.32%NPP at 17:00,which was designed to strengthen intrinsic phosphate circadian rhythms according to the findings in Exp.1,enhanced(P<0.05)MB remodeling(indicated by histological images,serum markers and bone mineralization gene expressions),elevated(P<0.05)oviduct uterus calcium transportation(indicated by transient receptor potential vanilloid 6 protein expression),and subsequently increased(P<0.05)eggshell thickness,eggshell strength,egg specific gravity and eggshell index in laying hens.Conclusions These results underscore the importance of manipulating the sequence of daily phosphorus ingestion,instead of simply controlling dietary phosphate concentrations,in modifying the bone remodeling process.Body phosphorus rhythms will need to be maintained during the daily eggshell calcification cycle.

Development of Eggshell Waste Incorporated with a Porous Host as a Humidity Adsorption Material

The duck eggshell waste was developed to the novel desiccant that is friendly to human and environment.The calcium oxide(Ca O)and calcium chloride(CaCl_(2))as the calcium-based desiccants were prepared from eggshell waste.The Ca O desiccant derived from the eggshell waste sintering at 1300℃,while the CaCl_(2)desiccant was extracted from eggshell waste with the hydrochloric(HCl)solution at difierent concentrations from 5 to 30 wt%.The yield percentage of CaCl_(2)desiccant increased with increasing the HCl concentration to 25 wt%.The humidity adsorption behavior were investigated in the range of 75%-5%relative humidity.The results show the CaCl_(2)desiccant has the highest hydration rate.The porous host from the kaolin was sintered at different temperatures from 200 to 1000℃and incorporated with 30%w/v concentrations of CaCl_(2).The physical properties and the humid-adsorption capacity of all porous host conditions were investigated.The porous host at sintering temperature 800℃has the highest specific surface area.Moreover,the porous host at sintering temperature 800℃with the 30%w/v concentration of CaCl_(2)desiccant has the highest humid-adsorption capacity.

Chicken Eggshell as an Innovative Bioflocculant in Harvesting Biofloc for Aquaculture Wastewater Treatment

Implementation of biofloc technology(BFT)system in aquaculture industry shows high productivity,low feed conversion ratio,and an optimum culture environment.This study was divided into two phases.The first phase involved maintaining the water quality using the optimum carbon-to-nitrogen ratio by manipulating pH in culture water.The second phase examined the performance of harvesting biofloc(remaining phytoplankton and suspended solids in the system)using chicken eggshell powder(CESP).This study showed that pH 7 to 8 were the best biofloc performance with high removal percentage of ammonia(>99%)with a remaining ammonia concentration of 0.016 mg L^(−1)and 0.018 mg L^(−1),respectively.The second phase of this study was performed to determine the optimal formulation and conditions of using CESP as a bio-flocculant in harvesting excess biofloc.The use of eggshell showed a higher harvesting efficiency of more than 80%under the following treatment conditions:0.25 g L^(−1)of eggshell dosage;with rapid and slow mixing rates of 150 and 30 rpm,respectively;30 min of settling time;settling velocity of 0.39 mm s^(−1)and pH of 6 to 7.Therefore,the results indicated that biofloc would be the best green technology approach for sustainable aquaculture wastewater and the CESP is an organic matrix that environmental-friendly bio-coagulant for biofloc harvesting.

Eggshell 49对蛋鸡蛋壳质量的影响

将 4 0 0羽 5 9周龄海兰褐壳蛋鸡随机分成实验组和对照组 ,每组 2 0 0羽 .实验组在千克基础日粮中添加Eggshell 4 91g,试验持续 70 d.结果表明 :实验组的不合格蛋率比对照组下降 1.3% ;实验组的蛋质量 (蛋壳厚度、蛋壳强度、哈氏单位、蛋密度 )、血 Zn、血 Mn和碱性磷酸酶活性均显著高于对照组 (p <0 .0 5 ) ;蛋的受精率、孵化率及血 Ca、血 P、蛋壳成分 (Ca、P、Zn、Mn)及蛋重 ,两组无显著差异 (p>0 .0 5 ) ;蛋壳结构电镜观察表明实验组蛋壳乳突较小、大小一致 ,乳突与壳膜连结紧密 ,壳膜纤维交织密度高 ,而对照组蛋壳乳突较大、大小不一致 ,乳突与壳膜连接不紧密 ,壳膜纤维交织密度稀 .可见 ,在产蛋后期日粮中添加具有生物活性的 Zn。

Pathways for Sustainable Utilization of Waste Chicken Eggshell

Chicken eggshell is one of the most common wastes generated from households,restaurants and other food processing outlets.Waste Chicken Eggshells(WCES)also constitutes an environmental nuisance and ends up discarded at dumping site with no consideration of further usage.The main constituent of WCES is calcium carbonate from which calcium or calcium oxide can be extracted for various applications.This current effort reviews recently published literature on the diverse applications of WCES.The considered utilization avenues include catalysts for biofuel production,construction industry,wastewater purification,industrial sector,food industry,medical,and agricultural applications.The specific areas of application apart from the transesterification reactions include cement additives and replacement in concrete,asphalt binder,adsorbent of metals and dyes,production of hydroxyapatite,food supplement and fortification,dentistry,therapeutics,bone formation,drug delivery,poultry feeds as well as organic fertilizer.For most of the identified applications,the WCES is subjected to pretreatment and other modification techniques before utilization.The conversion of WCES to valuable products is a cost-effective,safe,environmentally friendly,non-toxic and viable means of waste disposal and utilization.More investigations are needed to further explore the benefits derivable from this bioresource.

Utilization of Calcined Eggshell Waste as an Adsorbent for the Removal of Phenol from Aqueous Solution

Calcined eggshells (CES) were tested as adsorbent at a low cost for the removal of phenol from the waste water. The shells of Eggs extracts from waste were washed and then dried at a temperature of 60℃ and finally calcined in an oven at the atmospheric air in several temperatures 200℃, 400℃, 600℃, 800℃, 1000℃. The chemical composition of the obtained adsorbs was analyzed by the X-ray diffraction. The isothermal study of adsorption of the phenol was realized for the various adsorbates. It showed that the biggest efficiency of the elimination was attributed to the calcined eggshells to 1000℃with a percentage that reached 37%. The kinetics of adsorption were described by the first rate model. The intra particular distribution is a significant step in the adsorption process of phenol on calcined eggshells (CES). The separation factor gives a favorable adsorption of phenol on the CES.

Removal of Nickel (II) and Cobalt (II) from Wastewater Using Vinegar-Treated Eggshell Waste Biomass

The use of waste materials as low-cost adsorbents is attractive due to their contribution in the reduction of costs for waste disposal, therefore contributing to environmental protection and most importantly, offers an attractive potential alternative to their conventional methods of removal of toxic ions from wastewater. Eggshells are naturally occurring and an abundant biomass that has proven to offer an economic solution for toxic ions removal. The eggshell biomass was treated with acetic acid (vinegar). Nickel (II) and Cobalt (II) ions were selected as model ions to demonstrate the potential of eggshell waste in removing excess toxic heavy metal ions from wastewater. All the experiments were carried out in batch process with laboratory prepared samples. Multivariate optimization method was used to identify factors affecting adsorption. These factors included metal ion concentration, pH, contact time and biomass dosage on removal of nickel and cobalt from wastewater effluent was investigated. Two-level fraction factorial and central composite design were used for optimization methods. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, Raman Spectroscopy, and Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy were used to study physical properties of the waste material. The percentage removal of Nickel (II) and Cobalt (II) was 78.70 ± 1.02 and 76.53 ± 1.21 respectively. Vinegar-treated eggshells were proposed as eco-friendly, cheap, easily available and an efficient method for removal of heavy metals from the environment.

Removal of heavy metals using waste eggshell

The removal capacity of toxic heavy metals by the reused eggshell was studied. As a pretreatment process for the preparation of reused material from waste eggshell, calcination was performed in the furnace at 800℃ for 2 h after crushing the dried waste eggshell. Calcination behavior, qualitative and quantitative elemental information, mineral type and surface characteristics before and after calcination of eggshell were examined by thermal gravimetric analysis （TGA）, X-ray fluorescence （XRF）, X-ray diffraction （XRD） and scanning electron microscopy （SEM）, respectively. After calcination, the major inorganic composition was identified as Ca （lime, 99.63%） and K, P and Sr were identified as minor components. When calcined eggshell was applied in the treatment of synthetic wastewater containing heavy metals, a complete removal of Cd as well as above 99% removal of Cr was observed after 10 rain. Although the natural eggshell had some removal capacity of Cd and Cr, a complete removal was not accomplished even after 60 rain due to quite slower removal rate. However, in contrast to Cd and Cr, an efficient removal of Pb was observed with the natural eggshell rather than the calcined eggshell. From the application of the calcined eggshell in the treatment of real electroplating wastewater, the calcined eggshell showed a promising removal capacity of heavy metal ions as well as had a good neutralization capacity in the treatment of strong acidic wastewater.

Eggshell and environmental bacteria contribute to the intestinal microbiota of growing chickens

Background: The initial intestinal microbiota acquired from different sources has profound impacts on animal health and productivity. In modern poultry production practices, the source(s) of the establishing microbes and their overall contribution during development of gastrointestinal tract communities are still unclear. Using fertilized eggs from two independent sources, we assessed the impact of eggshell-and environmental-associated microbial communities on the successional processes and bacterial community structure throughout the intestinal tract of chickens for up to 6 weeks post-hatch.Results: Culturing and sequencing techniques identified a viable, highly diverse population of anaerobic bacteria on the eggshell. The jejunal, ileal, and cecal microbial communities for the egg-only, environment-only, and conventionally raised birds generally displayed similar successional patterns characterized by increasing community richness and evenness over time, with strains of Enterococcus, Romboutsia, and unclassified Lachnospiraceae abundant for all three input groups in both trials. Bacterial community structures differed significantly based on trial and microbiota input with the exception of the egg-exposed and conventional birds in the jejunum at week 1 and the ileum at week 6. Cecal community structures were different based on trial and microbiota input source, and cecal short-chain fatty acid profiles at week 6 highlighted functional differences as well.Conclusion: We identified distinct intestinal microbial communities and differing cecal short-chain fatty acid profiles between birds exposed to the microbiota associated with either the eggshell or environment, and those of conventionally hatched birds. Our data suggest the eggshell plays an appreciable role in the development of the chicken intestinal microbiota, especially in the jejunum and ileum where the community structure of the eggshellonly birds was similar to the structure of conventionally hatched birds. Our data identify a complex interplay between the eggshell and environmental microbiota during establishment and succession within the chicken gut.Further studies should explore the ability of eggshell-and environment-derived microbes to shape the dynamics of succession and how these communities can be targeted through interventions to promote gut health and mitigate food-borne pathogen colonization in poultry.

Observation on Ultra-micro Structure of Eggshell and Analysis of Composition of Eggshell and Feather in Great Bustard

Ultra-micro structure of eggshell was observed and compositions of eggshell and feather were analyzed. The results showed that the structure of eggshell has special characters besides common structure. The content of poisonous elements in wild great bustard(Otis talda) eggshell and feather is significant lower than that in eggshell of crested foes(Nipponis nippon) and in feather of red crown crane(Grus japonesis) because of less disturbance by people. The contents of 14 elements of female’s feather all are higher than those of male’s.