Activity Data and Emission Factor for Forestry and Other Land Use Change Subsector to Enhance Carbon Market Policy and Action in Malawi

Activity data and emission factors are critical for estimating greenhouse gas emissions and devising effective climate change mitigation strategies. This study developed the activity data and emission factor in the Forestry and Other Land Use Change (FOLU) subsector in Malawi. The results indicate that “forestland to cropland,” and “wetland to cropland,” were the major land use changes from the year 2000 to the year 2022. The forestland steadily declined at a rate of 13,591 ha (0.5%) per annum. Similarly, grassland declined at the rate of 1651 ha (0.5%) per annum. On the other hand, cropland, wetland, and settlements steadily increased at the rate of 8228 ha (0.14%);5257 ha (0.17%);and 1941 ha (8.1%) per annum, respectively. Furthermore, the results indicate that the “grassland to forestland” changes were higher than the “forestland to grassland” changes, suggesting that forest regrowth was occurring. On the emission factor, the results interestingly indicate that there was a significant increase in carbon sequestration in the FOLU subsector from the year 2011 to 2022. Carbon sequestration increased annually by 13.66 ± 0.17 tCO2 e/ha/yr (4.6%), with an uncertainty of 2.44%. Therefore, it can be concluded that there is potential for a Carbon market in Malawi.

Investigation on emission factors of particulate matter and gaseous pollutants from crop residue burning

Emission factors of particulate matter （PM）, element carbon （EC）, organic carbon （OC）, SO2, NOx, CO, CO2, and ten ions （Na^＋, NH4^＋, K^＋, Mg^2＋, Ca^2＋, Fˉ, Clˉ, NO2ˉ, NO3ˉ, SO42ˉ） were estimated from the domestic burning of four types of commonly produced crop residues in rural China： rice straw, wheat straw, corn stover, and cotton stalk, which were collected from the representative regions across China. A combustion tower was designed to simulate the cooking conditions under which the peasants burned their crop residues in rural China, to measure the emission factors. Results showed that wheat straw had the highest emission factor for the total PM （8.75 g/kg） among the four crop residues, whereas, corn stover and wheat straw have the highest emission factor for EC （0.95 g/kg） and OC （3.46 g/kg）, respectively. Corn stover also presents as having the highest emission factors of NO, NOx, and CO2, whereas, wheat straw, rice straw, and cotton stalk had the highest emission factors of NO2, SO2, and CO, respectively. The water-soluble ions, K^＋ and Clˉ, had the highest emission factors from all the crops. Wheat straw had a relatively higher emission factor of cation species and Fˉ, Clˉ, NO2ˉ than other residues.

Real-world vehicle emission factors in Chinese metropolis city—Beijing

The dynamometer tests with different driving cycles and the real-world tests are presented. Results indicated the pollutants emission factors and fuel consumption factor with ECE15+EUDC driving cycle usually take the lowest value and with real world driving cycle occur the highest value, and different driving cycles will lead to significantly different vehicle emission factors with the same vehicle. Relative to the ECE15+EUDC driving cycle, the increasing rate of pollutant emission factors of CO, NOx and HC are -0.42—2.99, -0.32 —0.81 and -0.11—11 with FTP75 testing, 0.11—1.29, -0.77—0.64 and 0.47—10.50 with Beijing 1997 testing and 0.25—1.83, 0.09—0.75 and -0.58—1.50 with real world testing. Compared to the carburetor vehicles, the retrofit and MPI+TWC vehicles' pollution emission factors decrease with different degree. The retrofit vehicle(Santana) will reduce 4.44%—58.44% CO, -4.95%—36.79% NOx, -32.32%—33.89% HC, and -9.39%—14.29% fuel consumption, and especially that the MPI+TWC vehicle will decrease CO by 82.48%—91.76%, NOx by 44.87%—92.79%, HC by 90.00%—93.89% and fuel consumption by 5.44%—10.55%. Vehicles can cause pollution at a very high rate when operated in high power modes; however, they may not often operate in these high power modes. In analyzing vehicle emissions, it describes the fraction of time that vehicles operate in various power modes. In Beijing, vehicles spend 90% of their operation in low power modes or decelerating.

Estimation of SO_2 emission factors from copper smelting industry in Yunnan Province,China

Copper smelting is a significant source of SO2 emission. It is important to quantify SO2 emissions from combustion sources for regulatory and control purposes in relation to air quality. The characteristics of SO2 emissions from copper smelting industry in Yurman Province, China, were examined. Analysis based on the present situation, material balance and measuring method were used to confirm SO2 emission factors of copper smelting industry. Results show that SO2 emission factors for Isa system, side blown-continuous converting system （SB-CC）, blast furnace-continuous converting systems （B-CC） and blast furnace-converter blowing （B-C） are 11.69-18.64, 62.44--101.4, 19.43-37.88 and 45.48-81.03 kg/t（blister copper）, respectively. The comprehensive emission factor based on all smelting plants is found to be in the range of 23-39.99 kg-SO2/t（blister copper） for Yunnan Province, China. The results are compared with those for discharge coefficients of industrial pollutants in the First National General Survey of Pollution Sources and the emission factor of the total amount of major pollutants. It is observed that there are some differences among emission factors.

On the determination of nitrous oxide emission factor during biomass burning

The emission factors of nitrous oxide have been determined during the combustion of rice straws, maize stalks and wheat stalks in an enclosed combustion system. They equal to 84.4 ± 6.08g/t for rice straws,132± 8.63g/t for maize stalks,and 27.3 ±1.79g/tfor wheat stalks,respectively. The uncertainties in the determination of nitrous oxide have been discussed. The N_2O-N(nitrogen in nitrous oxide emission)accounts for 0. 59% and 0. 87% of the total nitrogen in rice straws and maize stalks,respectively. An 1￣0 ×1￣0 grid map on the distribution of N_2O emission from biomass burning in China mainland was shown.

Emission Factors of Particulate Matter Emitted from Co-Firing of Thai Lignite and Agricultural Residues in Fixed Bed Combustor

Emission factors （EFs） of particulate matter （PM） derived from mono and co-firing of Thai lignite and agricultural residues have been investigated. Two sampling methods for PM, total filtration （TF） and electrical low-pressure impactor （ELPI）, were used together. The study is focused on the influence of fuel mass fraction, and of secondary air to total air; SA：TA on EFs of PM. The results have shown that EFs of PM in mass-basis given by TF method are 8.9, 5.3 and 8.1 mg/kgfuel, while 3.3, 2.7 and 3.3 mg/kgfuel when using ELPI, for firing at constant SA：TA （30%） of lignite, rice husk and bagasse, respectively. For co-firing with 30%SA of coal/rice husk, higher EFs of PM is observed. They are 7.17 and 10.9 mg/kgfuel （TF） for 40 and 70% rice husk share, respectively, or 4.18 and 5.19 mg/kgfuel （ELPI）. However, lower PM emission; 1-3.3 mg/kgruel （TF） or 0.72-2.83 mg/kgfuel （ELPI） are obtained during co-firing of coal/rice husk with lower degree of air staging （i.e. 0-10% SA：TA）. For the influence of oxygenation state, increasing of SA： TA leads to a low formation of ultrafine particles （Dp 〈 0.1 μm）. Apart from PM, major gases （CO, NO, SO2） will be documented in this paper.

The Importance of the Generation of Emission Factors for Developing Countries： Case of Mexico

Developing countries as Mexico lack their own emission factors for thermoelectric power plants, so they have the need to develop them, considering specific operation conditions for each plant. This study develops specific emission factors in Mexico for： sulfur dioxide （SO2）, nitrogen oxides （NOx） and particles, for thermoelectric power plants that use fuel oil. This work was necessary due to the differences found between the measured and the calculated emissions, using emission factors of different agencies, such as, US-EPA （Environmental Protection Agency of the United States）, IPCC （Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change）, and UK-NAEI （National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory of the United Kingdom）. The new emission factors were used to calculate the emissions of a thermoelectric power plant in Mexico. The comparisons between the measured and the calculated emissions （with the new emission factors） for 502, particles and NO2 were not significantly different （p 〉 0.05）.

Analysis on emission factor of fugitive dust from road traffic

ＡｎａｌｙｓｉｓｏｎｅｍｉｓｉｏｎｆａｃｔｏｒｏｆｆｕｇｉｔｉｖｅｄｕｓｔｆｒｏｍｒｏａｄｔｒａｆｉｃＦｕＬｉｘｉｎＤｅｐａｒｔｍｅｎｔｏｆＥｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔａｌＥｎｇｉｎｅｅｒｉｎｇ，ＴｓｉｎｇｈｕａＵｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙ，Ｂｅｉｊｉｎｇ１０００...

Non-cropping period accounting for over a half of annual nitric oxide releases from cultivated calcareous-soil alpine ecosystems with marginally low emission factors

Nitric oxide(NO)emissions from alpine ecosystems conventionally being long-term cultivated with feed crops are not well quantified.The authors attempted to address this knowledge gap by performing a year-round experimental campaign in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau.Fertilized(F)and unfertilized(UF)treatments were established within a flat calcareous-soil site for the long-term cultivation of feed oats.NO fluxes and five soil variables were simultaneously measured.A single plow tillage accounted for approximately 54%–73%of the NO releases during the cropping period(CP);and the non-cropping period(NCP)contributed to 51%–58%of the annual emissions.The direct NO emissions factor(EFd)was 0.021%±0.021%.Significantly lower Q10 values(p<0.01)occurred in the F treatment during the CP(approximately 3.6)compared to those during the other period or in the other treatment(approximately 4.9?5.1),indicating a fertilizer-induced reduction in the temperature sensitivity.The selected soil variables jointly accounted for up to 72%(p<0.01)of the variance for all the fluxes across both treatments.This finding suggests that temporally and/or spatially distributed fluxes from alpine calcareous-soil ecosystems for feed crop production may be easily predicted if data on these soil variables are available.Further studies are needed to test the hypothesis that the EFd is larger in alpine feed-oat fields than those in this study if the soil moisture content is higher during the period following the basal application of ammoniumor urea-based fertilizer.

Carbon emission reduction analysis of CHP system driven by biogas based on emission factors

The cogeneration system of heat,power,and biogas(CHPB)driven by renewable energy provides an effective solution for carbon emission reduction in rural China.Starting from fully meeting the energy demand of 17 new rural residential households in Lanzhou,considering the annual dynamic local climate change,energy consump-tion characteristics,and environment parameters,a model of environmental benefit index for the CHPB system is constructed.The concept of emission factor is used to quantitatively analyze the environmental benefits of the system.The equivalent CO_(2)emission factor is defined to connect emissions with energy output,evaluating the environment-friendly potential of energy supply system.Compared with the conventional systems of indepen-dent power and thermal generation,the year-round characteristics of CO_(2)emission and emission structure chart of the proposed system are analyzed.The results show that the total CO_(2)emission and the average equivalent CO_(2)emission factors of the conventional and CHPB system are 85.45t,1.53 kg/kWh,and 308.46t,0.22 kg/kWh,respectively.The maximum CO_(2)emission reduction ratio of the CHPB system is 113.47%.Anaerobic digestion technology is employed to consume biomass feedstock,which reduced CH_(4)emission(equivalent to 86.36t of CO_(2)emission reduction).Five typical cities were selected to study the regional adaptability of the system and analyze environmental benefits.The results indicate that the CHPB system has the best environmental performance in Guangzhou,where the average CO_(2)emission reduction rate is 103.52%.

Comparative investigation of coal-and oil-fired boilers based on emission factors,ozone and secondary organic aerosol formation potentials of VOCs

Volatile organic compounds(VOCs)are the important precursors of the tropospheric ozone(O3)and secondary organic aerosols(SOA),both of which are known to harm human health and disrupt the earth’s climate system.In this study,VOC emission factors,O3 and SOA formation potentials were estimated for two types of industrial boilers:coal-fired boilers(n=3)and oil-fired boilers(n=3).Results showed that EVOCs concentrations were more than nine times higher for oil-fire d boilers compared to those for coal-fired boilers.Emission factors ofΣVOCs were found to be higher for oil-fired boilers(9.26-32.83 mg-VOC/kg)than for coal-fired boilers(1.57-4.13 mg-VOC/kg).Alkanes and aromatics were obtained as the most abundant groups in coal-fired boilers,while oxygenated organics and aromatics were the most contributing groups in oil-fired boilers.Benzene,n-hexane and o-ethyl toluene were the abundant VOC species in coal-fired boiler emissions,whereas toluene was the most abundant VOC species emitted from oil-fired boilers.O3 and SOA formation potentials were found 12 and 18 times,respectively,higher for oil-fired than for coal-fired boilers.Total OFP ranged from 3.99 to 11.39 mg-O3/kg for coal-fired boilers.For oil-fired boilers,total OFP ranged from 36.16 to 131.93 mg-O3/kg.Moreover,total secondary organic aerosol potential(SOAP)ranged from 65.4 to 122.5 mg-SOA/kg and 779.9 to 2252.5 mg-SOA/kg for the coal-fired and oil-fired boilers,respectively.

Development of database of real-world diesel vehicle emission factors for China

A database of real-world diesel vehicle emission factors, based on type and technology, has been developed following tests on more than 300 diesel vehicles in China using a portable emission measurement system. The database provides better understanding of diesel vehicle emissions under actual driving conditions. We found that although new regulations have reduced real-world emission levels of diesel trucks and buses significantly for most pollutants in China, NOx emissions have been inadequately controlled by the current standards, especially for diesel buses, because of bad driving conditions in the real world. We also compared the emission factors in the database with those calculated by emission factor models and used in inventory studies. The emission factors derived from COPERT（Computer Programmer to calculate Emissions from Road Transport） and MOBILE may both underestimate real emission factors, whereas the updated COPERT and PART5（Highway Vehicle Particulate Emission Modeling Software） models may overestimate emission factors in China. Real-world measurement results and emission factors used in recent emission inventory studies are inconsistent,which has led to inaccurate estimates of emissions from diesel trucks and buses over recent years. This suggests that emission factors derived from European or US-based models will not truly represent real-world emissions in China. Therefore, it is useful and necessary to conduct systematic real-world measurements of vehicle emissions in China in order to obtain the optimum inputs for emission inventory models.

Emission factors of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from domestic coal combustion in China

Domestic coal stove is widely used in China, especially for countryside during heating period of winter, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons （PAHs） are important in flue gas of the stove. By using dilution tunnel system, samples of both gaseous and particulate phases from domestic coal combustion were collected and 18 PAH species were analyzed by GC-MS. The average emission factors of total 18 PAH species was 171.73 mg/kg, ranging from 140.75 to 229.11 mg/kg for bituminous coals, while was 93.98 mg/kg, ranging from 58.48 to 129.47 mg/kg for anthracite coals. PAHs in gaseous phases occupied 95% of the total of PAHs emission of coal combustion. In particulate phase, 3-ring and 4- ring PAHs were the main components, accounting for 80% of the total particulate PAHs. The total toxicity potency evaluated by benzo[a]pyrene-equivalent carcinogenic power, sum of 7 carcinogenic PAH components and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin had a similar tendency. And as a result, the toxic potential of bituminous coal was higher than that of anthracite coal. Efficient emission control should be conducted to reduce PAH emissions in order to protect ecosystem and human health.

Influence of fuel mass load,oxygen supply and burning rate on emission factor and size distribution of carbonaceous particulate matter from indoor corn straw burning

The uncertainty in emission estimation is strongly associated with the variation in emission factor （EF）,which could be influenced by a variety of factors such as fuel properties,stove type,fire management and even methods used in measurements.The impacts of these factors are complicated and often interact with each other.Controlled burning experiments were conducted to investigate the influences of fuel mass load,air supply and burning rate on the emissions and size distributions of carbonaceous particulate matter （PM） from indoor corn straw burning in a cooking stove.The results showed that the EFs of PM （EFPM）,organic carbon （EFOC） and elemental carbon （EFEC） were independent of the fuel mass load.The differences among them under different burning rates or air supply amounts were also found to be insignificant （p 〉 0.05） in the tested circumstances.PM from the indoor corn straw burning was dominated by fine PM with diameter less than 2.1 μm,contributing 86.4%±3.9% of the total.The size distribution of PM was influenced by the burning rate and air supply conditions.On average,EF PM,EF OC and EF EC for corn straw burned in a residential cooking stove were （3.84±1.02）,（0.846±0.895） and （0.391±0.350） g/kg,respectively.EF PM,EF OC and EF EC were found to be positively correlated with each other （p 〈 0.05）,but they were not significantly correlated with the EF of co-emitted CO,suggesting that special attention should be paid to the use of CO as a surrogate for other incomplete combustion pollutants.

TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL VARIATION OF EMISSIONFACTORS IN CHINA

Emission factor is a measure of pollution intensities caused by economic activities, which can be used to assess potential for pollution reduection. With the emission factors derived based on relatively few datu points or based on data collected from a specfic region, one can predict the total environmental pollution levels for the drire economy or for another region once the total leve of economic actvities of the concemed economy or region is known or prescribed. Moreover,research on emission factors can not only guide the decision-making process in choosing the best environmental protection strategy, but also be used as indicators. for the assessment and comparison of the environmentally sound development. In this paper, emission factors based on output and employment in different periods,provinces and industries are calculated, based on which temporal and spatial analyses of emission factors are carried out. Obvious declining trends of emission factors both by provinces and industries are declared, and the regional differentiation by provinces and industries is also verified.

Greenhouse gas emission analysis and measurement for urban rail transit: A review of research progress and prospects

Rail transit plays a key role in mitigating transportation system carbon emissions.Accurate measurement of urban rail transit carbon emission can help quantify the contribution of urban rail transit towards urban transportation carbon emission reduction.Since the whole life cycle of urban rail transit carbon emission measurement involves a wide range of aspects,a systematic framework model is required for analysis.This research reviews the existing studies on carbon emission of urban rail transit.First,the characteristics of urban rail transit carbon emission were determined and the complexity of carbon emission measurement was analyzed.Then,the urban rail transit carbon emission measurement models were compared and analyzed in terms of the selection of research boundaries,the types of greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions calculation,and the accuracy of the measurement.Following that,an intelligent station was introduced to analyze the practical application of digital collaboration technology and energy-saving and carbon-reducing system platforms for rail transit.Finally,the urgent problems and future research directions at this stage were discussed.This research presents the necessity of establishing a dynamic carbon emission factor library and the important development trend of system integration of carbon emission measurement and digital system technology.

Comparative Analysis of PM10 Emission Rates from Controlled and Uncontrolled Cement Silos in Concrete Batching Facilities

This research study quantifies the PM10 emission rates (g/s) from cement silos in 25 concrete batching facilities for both controlled and uncontrolled scenarios by applying the USEPA AP-42 guidelines step-by-step approach. The study focuses on evaluating the potential environmental impact of cement dust fugitive emissions from 176 cement silos located in 25 concrete batching facilities in the M35 Mussafah industrial area of Abu Dhabi, UAE. Emission factors are crucial for quantifying the PM10 emission rates (g/s) that support developing source-specific emission estimates for areawide inventories to identify major sources of pollution that provide screening sources for compliance monitoring and air dispersion modeling. This requires data to be collected involves information on production, raw material usage, energy consumption, and process-related details, this was obtained using various methods, including field visits, surveys, and interviews with facility representatives to calculate emission rates accurately. Statistical analysis was conducted on cement consumption and emission rates for controlled and uncontrolled sources of the targeted facilities. The data shows that the average cement consumption among the facilities is approximately 88,160 (MT/yr), with a wide range of variation depending on the facility size and production rate. The emission rates from controlled sources have an average of 4.752E-04 (g/s), while the rates from uncontrolled sources average 0.6716 (g/s). The analysis shows a significant statistical relationship (p < 0.05) and perfect positive correlation (r = 1) between cement consumption and emission rates, indicating that as cement consumption increases, emission rates tend to increase as well. Furthermore, comparing the emission rates from controlled and uncontrolled scenarios. The data showed a significant difference between the two scenarios, highlighting the effectiveness of control measures in reducing PM10 emissions. The study’s findings provide insights into the impact of cement silo emissions on air quality and the importance of implementing control measures in concrete batching facilities. The comparative analysis contributes to understanding emission sources and supports the development of pollution control strategies in the Ready-Mix industry.

建筑全生命周期碳排放——内涵、计算和减量

The life-cycle assessment method,which originates from general products and services,has gradually come to be applied to investigations of the life-cycle carbon emissions(LCCE)of buildings.A literature review was conducted to clarify LCCE implications,calculations,and reductions in the context of buildings.A total of 826 global building carbon emission calculation cases were obtained from 161 studies based on the framework of the building life-cycle stage division stipulated by ISO 21930 and the basic principles of the emission factor(EF)approach.The carbon emission calculation methods and results are discussed herein,based on the modules of production,construction,use,end-of-life,and supplementary benefits.According to the hotspot distribution of a building’s carbon emissions,carbon reduction strategies are classified into six groups for technical content and benefits analysis,including reducing the activity data pertaining to building materials and energy,reducing the carbon EFs of the building materials and energy,and exploiting the advantages of supplementary benefits.The research gaps and challenges in current building LCCE studies are summarized in terms of research goals and ideas,calculation methods,basic parameters,and carbon reduction strategies;development suggestions are also proposed.

Evaluation of the International Vehicle Emission (IVE) model with on-road remote sensing measurements

Intemational Vehicle Emissions （IVE） model funded by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency （USEPA） is designed to estimate emissions from motor vehicles in developing countries. In this study, the IVE model was evaluated by utilizing a dataset available from the remote sensing measurements on a large number of vehicles at five different sites in Hangzhou, China, in 2004 and 2005. Average fuel-based emission factors derived from the remote sensing measurements were compared with corresponding emission factors derived from IVE calculations for urban, hot stabilized condition. The results show a good agreement between the two methods for gasoline passenger cars＇ HC emission for all 1VE subsectors and technology classes. In the case of CO emissions, the modeled results were reasonably good, although systematically underestimate the emissions by almost 12%-50% for different technology classes. However, the model totally overestimated NOx emissions. The IVE NOx emission factors were 1.5-3.5 times of the remote sensing measured ones. The IVE model was also evaluated for light duty gasoline truck, heavy duty gasoline vehicles and motor cycles. A notable result was observed that the decrease in emissions from technology class State II to State I were overestimated by the IVE model compared to remote sensing measurements for all the three pollutants. Finally, in order to improve emission estimation, the adjusted base emission factors from local studies are strongly recommended to be used in the IVE model.

The effects of nitrogen fertilizer application on methane and nitrous oxide emission/uptake in Chinese croplands

The application of nitrogen（N） fertilizer to increase crop yields has a significant influence on soil methane（CH_4） and nitrous oxide（N_2O） emission/uptake.A meta-analysis was carried out on the effect of N application on（i） CH_4 emissions in rice paddies,（ii） CH_4 uptake in upland fields and（iii） N_2O emissions.The responses of CH_4 emissions to N application in rice paddies were highly variable and overall no effects were found.CH_4 emissions were stimulated at low N application rates（〈100 kg N ha^（-1）） but inhibited at high N rates（〉200 kg N ha^（-1）） as compared to no N fertilizer（control）.The response of CH_4 uptake to N application in upland fields was 15%lower than control,with a mean CH_4 uptake factor of-0.001 kg CH_4-C kg^（-1） N.The mean N_2O emission factors were 1.00 and 0.94%for maize（Zea mays） and wheat（Triticum aestivum）,respectively,but significantly lower for the rice（Oryza sativa）（0.51%）.Compared with controls,N addition overall increased global warming potential of CH_4 and N_2O emissions by 78%.Our result revealed that response of CH_4 emission to N input might depend on the CH_4concentration in rice paddy.The critical factors that affected CH_4 uptake and N_2O emission were N fertilizer application rate and the controls of CH_4 uptake and N_2O emission.The influences of application times,cropping systems and measurement frequency should all be considered when assessing CH_4 and N_2O emissions/uptake induced by N fertilizer.