Dosimetric risk factors for radiation esophagitis in patients with breast cancer following regional nodal radiation

BACKGROUND Radiation esophagitis(RE)is one of the most common clinical symptoms of regional lymph node radiotherapy for breast cancer.However,there are fewer studies focusing on RE caused by hypofractionated radiotherapy(HFRT).AIM To analyze the clinical and dosimetric factors that contribute to the development of RE in patients with breast cancer treated with HFRT of regional lymph nodes.METHODS Between January and December 2022,we retrospectively analysed 64 patients with breast cancer who met our inclusion criteria underwent regional nodal intensity-modulated radiotherapy at a radiotherapy dose of 43.5 Gy/15F.RESULTS Of the 64 patients in this study,24(37.5%)did not develop RE,29(45.3%)developed grade 1 RE(G1RE),11(17.2%)developed grade 2 RE(G2RE),and none developed grade 3 RE or higher.Our univariable logistic regression analysis found G2RE to be significantly correlated with the maximum dose,mean dose,relative volume 20-40,and absolute volume(AV)20-40.Our stepwise linear regression analyses found AV30 and AV35 to be significantly associated with G2RE(P<0.001).The optimal threshold for AV30 was 2.39 mL[area under the curve(AUC):0.996;sensitivity:90.9%;specificity:91.1%].The optimal threshold for AV35 was 0.71 mL(AUC:0.932;sensitivity:90.9%;specificity:83.9%).CONCLUSION AV30 and AV35 were significantly associated with G2RE.The thresholds for AV30 and AV35 should be limited to 2.39 mL and 0.71 mL,respectively.

Evolving strategies: Enhancements in managing eosinophilic esophagitis in pediatric patients

Eosinophilic esophagitis is a newly recognized disease first described about 50 years ago.The definition,diagnosis,and management have evolved with new published consensus guidelines and newly approved treatment available to pediatricians,enabling a better understanding of this disease and more targeted treatment for patients.We describe the definition,presentation,and diagnosis of eosinophilic esophagitis including management,challenges,and future directions in children.The definition,diagnosis,and management of eosinophilic esophagitis have evolved over the last 50 years.Consensus guidelines and newly approved biologic treatment have enabled pediatricians to better understand this disease and allow for more targeted treatment for patients.We describe the definition,presentation,diagnosis,management,and treatment in addition to the challenges and future directions of eosinophilic esophagitis management in children.

Immunoglobulin G-mediated food intolerance and metabolic syndrome influence the occurrence of reflux esophagitis in Helicobacter pylori-infected patients

BACKGROUND Reflux esophagitis has an increasing prevalence and complex and diverse symptoms.Identifying its risk factors is crucial to understanding the etiology,prevention,and management of the disease.The occurrence of reflux esophagitis may be associated with food reactions,Helicobacter pylori(H.pylori)infection,and metabolic syndromes.AIM To investigate the risk factors for reflux esophagitis and analyze the effects of immunoglobulin(Ig)G-mediated food intolerance,H.pylori infection,and metabolic syndrome on reflux esophagitis.METHODS Outpatients attending the Second Medical Center of the PLA General Hospital between 2017 and 2021 were retrospectively enrolled.The patients’basic information,test results,gastroscopy results,H.pylori test results,and IgG-mediated food intolerance results were collected.Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to analyze risk factors for reflux esophagitis.Statistical mediation analysis was used to evaluate the effects of IgG-mediated food intolerance and metabolic syndrome on H.pylori infection affecting reflux esophagitis.RESULTS A total of 7954 outpatients were included;the prevalence of reflux esophagitis,IgG-mediated food intolerance,H.pylori infection,and metabolic syndrome were 20.84%,61.77%,35.91%,and 60.15%,respectively.Multivariate analysis showed that the independent risk factors for reflux esophagitis included IgG-mediated food intolerance(OR=1.688,95%CI:1.497-1.903,P<0.00001)and metabolic syndrome(OR=1.165,95%CI:1.030-1.317,P=0.01484),and the independent protective factor for reflux esophagitis was H.pylori infection(OR=0.400,95%CI:0.351-0.456,P<0.00001).IgG-mediated food intolerance had a partially positive mediating effect on H.pylori infection as it was associated with reduced occurrence of reflux esophagitis(P=0.0200).Metabolic syndrome had a partially negative mediating effect on H.pylori infection and reduced the occurrence of reflux esophagitis(P=0.0220).CONCLUSION Patients with IgG-mediated food intolerance and metabolic syndrome were at higher risk of developing reflux esophagitis,while patients with H.pylori infection were at lower risk.IgG-mediated food intolerance reduced the risk of reflux esophagitis pathogenesis in patients with H.pylori infection;however,metabolic syndrome increased the risk of patients with H.pylori infection developing reflux esophagitis.

Analysis of the Effectiveness of Biling Weitong Granules Combined with Trimethoprim and Vonoprazan in The Treatment of Reflux Esophagitis

Objective:To analyze the effectiveness of Biling Weitong Granules(BLWTG)combined with trimethoprim and vonoprazan in treating reflux esophagitis.Methods:Sixty patients with reflux esophagitis admitted to our hospital from March 2020 to March 2023 were selected as study subjects and randomly divided into a control group and an experimental group,with 30 cases in each group.The control group received only the combination treatment of trimethoprim and vonoprazan,while the experimental group was treated with BLWTG based on the control group.The acid reflux and heartburn symptom scores,quality-of-life scores,clinical efficacy,Chinese medicine symptom incidences,and the occurrence of adverse reactions before and after treatment in the two groups were compared.Results:After treatment,the acid reflux and heartburn symptom scores of patients in the experimental group were lower than those of the treatment control group,and the quality-of-life scores were higher than those of the treatment control group(P<0.05).The total clinical efficacy of the experimental group was 96.66%,which was significantly higher than that of the control group(73.33%,P<0.05).After treatment,the incidence of Chinese medicine symptoms,such as nausea and vomiting,abdominal distension and abdominal pain,and loss of appetite of the patients in the experimental group were significantly lower than those of the control group(P<0.05).During the treatment period,there was no significant difference in the incidence of adverse reactions between the two groups,which indicated that the safety of the two treatments was comparable(P>0.05).Conclusion:BLWTG combined with trimethoprim and vonoprazan was safe and reliable in treating reflux esophagitis,effectively relieving the symptoms and improving its clinical efficacy.This treatment is worthy of popularization.

Study on the Application of Refined Nursing Care in The Care for Elderly Patients with Reflux Esophagitis

Objective: To investigate the application effect of refined nursing care in the care for elderly patients with reflux esophagitis. Methods: Following the difference in nursing style, 84 cases of elderly patients with reflux esophagitis admitted to our hospital from May 2022 to May 2023 were randomly grouped into a control group and a research group, with 42 cases each. The control group was given conventional nursing care and the research group was given refined nursing care. The psychological state and treatment adherence of the two groups of patients after the nursing intervention were compared. Results: After the nursing intervention, the self-rating anxiety scale (SAS) and self-rating depression scale (SDS) scores of the research group were lower than those of the control group (P < 0.05). The treatment compliance of the research group was better than the control group (P < 0.05). Conclusion: The implementation of refined nursing care for elderly patients with reflux esophagitis exhibited a significant effect on improving the patient’s psychological state, treatment compliance, and rehabilitation.

Animal models of eosinophilic esophagitis,review and perspectives

Eosinophilic oesophagitis(EoE)is an allergen/immune-mediated chronic esophageal disease characterized by esophageal mucosal eosinophilic infiltration and esophageal dysfunction.Although the disease was originally attributed to a delayed allergic reaction to allergens and a Th2-type immune response,the exact pathogenesis is complex,and the efficacy of existing treatments is unsatisfactory.Therefore,the study of the pathophysiological process of EOE has received increasing attention.Animal models have been used extensively to study the molecular mechanism of EOE pathogenesis and also provide a preclinical platform for human clinical intervention studies of novel therapeutic agents.To maximize the use of existing animal models of EOE,it is important to understand the advantages or limitations of each modeling approach.This paper systematically describes the selection of experimental animals,types of allergens,and methods of sensitization and excitation during the preparation of animal models of EoE.It also discusses the utility and shortcomings of each model with the aim of providing the latest perspectives on EoE models and leading to better choices of animal models.

Clinical features of gastroesophageal reflux disease and erosive esophagitis:Insights from patients undergoing esophagogastroduodenoscopy in resource-limited Ethiopia

BACKGROUND Gastroesophageal reflux disease(GERD)is a common disease worldwide with varying clinical presentations and risk factors.Prevalence data for Africa is lacking,but an increasing trend is expected due to demographic and epidemiological transitions.Although endoscopic studies for general gastrointestinal disorders have shown some patients with erosive esophagitis(EE),no studies in Ethiopia have investigated the clinical characteristics,risk factors,and severity of GERD using esophagogastroduodenoscopy(EGD).AIM To assess the clinical features of GERD in Ethiopian patients who underwent EGD and determine the severity and risk factors of EE.METHODS We conducted a multicenter,retrospective cross-sectional study of 221 patients diagnosed with GERD and endoscopic findings of EE at Trauma Associated Severe Hemorrhage and Amniotic Membrane Stem Cell between January 2019 and August 2022.Data were collected from electronic medical records and phone call interviews.We used descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression analysis with SPSS version 26 to identify the association between variables with a statistical significance set at P value<0.05.RESULTS The mean±SD age of the patients was 44.8(±15.9)years,with a male-to-female ratio of 1.6:1.The most commonly reported symptom was epigastric pain(80.5%),followed by heartburn(43%).Los Angeles(LA)-A EE was diagnosed in 71.1%of patients,followed by LA-B(14.9%),LA-C(7.7%),and LA-D(5.9%).Multivariate analysis showed that age 50 or above,presence of bleeding,and endoscopic findings of duodenitis/duodenopathy were significantly associated with severe EE(P<0.05).Stricture and Barrett’s esophagus were observed in 4.5%and 1.36%of patients with EE,respectively.CONCLUSION Most of the patients had milder EE with fewer complications.However,severe EE was more prevalent in older patients and those with duodenitis/duodenopathy.

Huoxue Tongjiang decoction-resisted reflux esophagitis by activation stem cell factor/c-kit/interstitial cell of cajal pathway and regulating the T-helper 17/regulatory T-cells balance in rats

Background:Huoxue Tongjiang decoction(HXTJD)is an effective prescription for treating reflux esophagitis(RE).We investigated the effects of HXTJD on esophageal motility and mucosal inflammation in a rat RE model.Methods:Chemical composition of HXTJD was analyzed by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography Q-Orbitrap mass spectrometry(MS).The change rates of mean contraction tension forces,mean amplitudes,and mean frequencies for the lower esophageal sphincter(LES)were recorded using the isolated tissue bath system,mechanical tension transducer,and PowerLab physiological recorder.After weighing the stomach,the phenol red labeling method was used to measure the gastric emptying rate.The LES ultrastructure was observed through transmission electron microscopy.Immunofluorescence and western blotting were used to detect the number of interstitial cells of Cajal(ICC)and the expression levels of c-kit protein,connexin43(Cx43),and stem cell factor(SCF).Flow cytometric analysis and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay were conducted to detect the percentages of T helper 17(Th17)cells and regulatory T(Treg)cells and the serum concentrations of interleukin 6(IL-6),interleukin 17(IL-17),and interleukin 10(IL-10)in the rats.Results:We identified 28 chemical constituents in HXTJD.Regarding esophageal motility,we revealed that HXTJD increased the mean contraction tension forces,mean amplitudes,and mean frequency change rate of LES and the gastric emptying rate;decreased stomach weight;and improved the LES ultrastructure.Additionally,HXTJD increased the number of ICC-positive cells,and c-kit,Cx43,and SCF expression levels.Regarding esophageal inflammation,HXTJD significantly decreased the percentage of Th17 cells,and IL-6 and IL-17 concentrations,and increased the percentage of Treg cells and IL-10 concentration.Conclusion:HXTJD was found to be efficacious in the rat RE model.It may promote esophageal motility and alleviate the inflammatory response by activating the SCF/c-kit/ICC pathway and regulating the Th17/Treg cell balance.

The Therapeutic Effect of Biling Weitong Granules Combined with Oryz-Aspergillus Enzyme and Pancreatin Tablet on Reflux Esophagitis with Functional Dyspepsia

Objective:To investigate the therapeutic effect of Biling Weitong Granules combined with oryz-aspergillus enzyme and pancreatin tablets on patients with reflux esophagitis with functional dyspepsia.Methods:Sixty patients diagnosed with reflux esophagitis with functional dyspepsia who were admitted to the Affiliated Hospital of Hebei University between June 2020 and June 2023 were selected and divided into two groups:the control group and the observation group,each consisting of 30 cases.The control group received oryz-aspergillus enzyme and pancreatin tablets only,while the observation group received Biling Weitong Granules in addition to the tablets.The clinical efficacy,Chinese medicine syndrome points,esophageal kinetic indexes,gastrointestinal hormone levels,and therapeutic safety of both groups were evaluated.Results:The total efficiency of the observation group reached 93.33%,significantly higher than the 73.33%of the control group(P<0.05).After treatment,patients in the observation group exhibited significantly lower scores for Chinese medicine symptoms such as early satiety,belching,abdominal distension,abdominal pain,and loss of appetite compared to the control group(P<0.05).Furthermore,the observation group showed significantly higher upper esophageal sphincter pressure,lower esophageal sphincter pressure,and distal esophageal contraction scores compared to the control group(P<0.05).Additionally,levels of gastric motility hormone,vasoactive intestinal peptide,and gastrin were significantly higher in the observation group compared to the control group(P<0.05).Throughout the treatment period,there was no significant difference in the incidence of adverse reactions between the two groups,indicating comparable safety of the two treatment modalities(P>0.05).Conclusion:The combination of Biling Weitong Granules with oryz-aspergillus enzyme and pancreatin tablets demonstrates significant efficacy in the treatment of reflux esophagitis with functional dyspepsia,with a better safety profile.This finding warrants further clinical promotion.

Clinical features of acute esophageal mucosal lesions and reflux esophagitis Los Angeles classification grade D: A retrospective study

BACKGROUND Acute esophageal mucosal lesions(AEMLs)are an underrecognized and largely unexplored disease.Endoscopic findings are similar,and a higher percentage of AEML could be misdiagnosed as reflux esophagitis Los Angeles classification grade D(RE-D).These diseases could have different pathologies and require different treatments.AIM To compare AEML and RE-D to confirm that the two diseases are different from each other and to clarify the clinical features of AEML.METHODS We selected emergency endoscopic cases of upper gastrointestinal bleeding with circumferential esophageal mucosal injury and classified them into AEML and RE-D groups according to the mucosal injury’s shape on the oral side.We examined patient background,blood sampling data,comorbidities at onset,endoscopic characteristics,and outcomes in each group.RESULTS Among the emergency cases,the AEML and RE-D groups had 105(3.1%)and 48(1.4%)cases,respectively.Multiple variables exhibited significantly different results,indicating that these two diseases are distinct.The clinical features of AEML consisted of more comorbidities[risk ratio(RR):3.10;95%confidence interval(CI):1.68–5.71;P<0.001]and less endoscopic hemostasis compared with RE-D(RR:0.25;95%CI:0.10–0.63;P<0.001).Mortality during hospitalization was higher in the AEML group(RR:3.43;95%CI:0.82–14.40;P=0.094),and stenosis developed only in the AEML group.CONCLUSION AEML and RE-D were clearly distinct diseases with different clinical features.AEML may be more common than assumed,and the potential for its presence should be taken into account in cases of upper gastrointestinal bleeding with comorbidities.

Esophagitis Due to Actinomycosis in an Immunocompetent Patient with a History of SARS-Cov-2 Infection: Case Report

We present an unusual case of esophageal actinomycosis that developed in a patient with normal immunity and a history of acute SARS-CoV-2 infection. We report a case of a 56-year-old female patient without chronic degenerative pathologies with a history of non-severe acute SARS-CoV-2 infection that occurred two months prior to her presentation, treated with prednisone and betamethasone orally and inhaled, respectively for 21 days. The pivotal symptom is dysphagia and definitive diagnosis requires a tissue culture of the affected organ or a biopsy that shows the classic sulfur granules. Currently, antibiotic treatment with beta-lactams, such as amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, is still effective, as it was in our patient.

Double-tract reconstruction is superior to esophagogastrostomy in controlling reflux esophagitis and enhancing quality of life after proximal gastrectomy:Results from a prospective randomized controlled clinical trial in China

Objective:The aim of this study was to prospectively compare double-tract reconstruction(DTR)and esophagogastrostomy(EG)after proximal gastrectomy(PG)regarding the incidence of reflux esophagitis,quality of life(QOL),nutritional status and surgical safety.Methods:This study was a randomized controlled trial.Patients eligible for PG were enrolled and randomly assigned to the EG group and DTR group.The characteristics of patients,parameters for surgical safety,incidence of reflux esophagitis,nutrition status and QOL were collected and compared between the two groups.Univariate analysis and multivariate analysis were performed to determine the significant factors affecting the incidence of reflux esophagitis after PG.Results:Thirty-seven patients of the EG group and 36 patients of the DTR group were enrolled.The incidence of reflux esophagitis was significantly lower in the DTR group than in the EG group(8.3%vs.32.4%,P=0.019).The DTR group demonstrated a more favorable QOL than the EG group after PG.The nutritional status was balanced within the EG group and the DTR group.The operation time was longer in the DTR group than in the EG group(191 min vs.221 min,P=0.001),while surgical safety was similar in the two groups.Conclusions:Our research demonstrated that DTR is superior to EG after PG in terms of the incidence of reflux esophagitis and provides a more satisfactory QOL without increasing surgical complications or sacrificing nutritional status.

Significance of feeding dysfunction in eosinophilic esophagitis

Feeding dysfunction is a frequent presenting symptom of eosinophilic esophagitis(EoE). Here we present 3 children of various ages whose manifestations of EoE associated feeding dysfunction led to significant and life altering impact on their growth and development. Early identification of presenting symptoms of EoE will allow for prompt diagnosis and initiation of appropriate treatments. Recognition of salient features of dysfunction and treatment by feeding therapists and nutritionists led to symptom resolution and growth.

Study on pharmacodynamics and mechanism of nano-Kuiyangye in treating radiation esophagitis in rats

Objective:To explore the curative effect of nano-Kuiyangye on radiation esophagitis in Wistar rats,and to explore its possible mechanism.Methods:Wistar rats were irradiated locally with 30Gy rays to establish an animal model of radiation esophagitis in rats.After irradiation,nano-Kuiyangye,traditional Chinese medicine ulcer solution,Kangfuxin solution,nano-hydrotalcite matrix,and distilled water were used to intervene continuously for 7 d,during which the body weight and food intake of the rats were recorded.On day 7,blood was collected from the abdominal aorta under anesthesia,and the serum was obtained by centrifugation.The expression levels of pain-related factors prostaglandin-2(PGE-2),substance P(SP),and calcitonin gene-related peptide(CGRP)were detected by ELISA.Rats were sacrificed after blood collection,and full-length esophageal tissues were taken.Hematoxylin-eosin(HE)staining was performed to analyze the pathological changes of the rat esophagus,and Western Blotting was used to detect the expression of nuclear factor-κB(NF-κB)inflammatory protein.Results:Compared with the control group,the total food intake and body weight of the rats within 7 d after modeling were significantly decreased(P<0.05),and the expressions of pain-related factors PGE-2,SP,and CGRP were higher than those of the control group(P<0.05).,the esophageal pathological damage score increased(P<0.05),and the expression of NF-κB inflammatory protein increased(P<0.05);after treatment,the total food intake of the rats in the nano-Kuiyangye intervention group within 7 days after modeling was higher than that in other groups(P<0.05),the expressions of pain-related factors PGE-2,SP,and CGRP were lower than those in the model group(P<0.05),the esophageal pathological damage score was lower(P<0.05),and the expression of NF-κB inflammatory proteins was lower(P<0.05).Conclusion:Nano-Kuiyangye increases the food intake of rats with radiation esophagitis,reduces esophageal tissue damage,and reduces the concentration of serum pain factors;the anti-inflammatory effect of nano-Kuiyangye may be related to the reduction of NF-κB inflammatory factor levels.

Diagnostic role of fractional exhaled nitric oxide in pediatric eosinophilic esophagitis, relationship with gastric and duodenal eosinophils

BACKGROUND Eosinophilic esophagitis(EoE)is an eosinophilic-predominant inflammation of the esophagus diagnosed by upper endoscopy and biopsies.A non-invasive and cost-effective alternative for management of EoE is being researched.Previous studies assessing utility of fractional exhaled nitric oxide(FeNO)in EoE were low powered.None investigated the contribution of eosinophilic inflammation of the stomach and duodenum to FeNO.AIM To assess the utility of FeNO as a non-invasive biomarker of esophageal eosinophilic inflammation for monitoring disease activity.METHODS Patients aged 6-21 years undergoing scheduled upper endoscopy with biopsy for suspected EoE were recruited in our observational study.Patients on steroids and with persistent asthma requiring daily controller medication were excluded.FeNO measurements were obtained in duplicate using a chemiluminescence nitric oxide analyzer(NIOX MINO,Aerocrine,Inc.;Stockholm,Sweden)prior to endoscopy.Based on the esophageal peak eosinophil count(PEC)/high power field on biopsy,patients were classified as EoE(PEC≥15)or control(PEC≤14).Mean FeNO levels were correlated with presence or absence of EoE,eosinophil counts on esophageal biopsy,and abnormal downstream eosinophilia in the stomach(PEC≥10)and duodenum(PEC≥20).Wilcoxon rank-sum test,Spearman correlation,and logistic regression were used for analysis.P value<0.05 was considered significant.RESULTS We recruited a total of 134 patients,of which 45 were diagnosed with EoE by histopathology.The median interquartile range FeNO level was 17 parts per billion(11-37,range:7-81)in the EoE group and 12 parts per billion(8-19,range:5-71)in the control group.After adjusting for atopic diseases,EoE patients had significantly higher FeNO levels as compared to patients without EoE(Z=3.33,P<0.001).A weak yet statistically significant positive association was found between the number of esophageal eosinophils and FeNO levels(r=0.30,P<0.005).On subgroup analysis within the EoE cohort,higher FeNO levels were noted in patients with abnormal gastric(n=23,18 vs 15)and duodenal eosinophilia(n=28,21 vs 14);however,the difference was not statistically significant.CONCLUSION After ruling out atopy as possible confounder,we found significantly higher FeNO levels in the EoE cohort than in the control group.

Adult eosinophilic esophagitis and advances in its treatment

Eosinophilic esophagitis(EoE)is a chronic eosinophil inflammation that seems to be T helper type 2 antigen-driven.The disease is one of several eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders in which there appears to be inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract without any apparent underlying causes.Differential diagnosis needs to be made with gastroesophageal reflux,which is characterized by chronic inflammation due to gastric refluxate from disorders related to motility.EoE,however,is considered a chronic allergic inflammatory disorder related to destructive tissue remodeling.There seems to be a higher prevalence of EoE in Western countries.It is typically found in atopic male individuals.Physiopathological risk factors include atopy,environmental factors,esophageal epithelial barrier dysfunctions,etc.EoE can cause several symptoms that include retrosternal burning sensation,dysphagia,food impaction,chronic reflux symptoms,nausea,and vomiting.Early diagnosis,which requires a biopsy to assess for esophageal inflammation,is essential for proper treatment.The aim of our brief overview is to summarize the current literature regarding the characteristics,diagnosis,complications,mechanisms of pathology,clinical features,influence of comorbidities,and treatment in patients with EoE.

Eosinophilic esophagitis: New insights in pathogenesis and therapy

Eosinophilic esophagitis(Eo E) is a clinico-pathological entity with esophageal symptoms and dense esophageal eosinophilic infiltration throughout the esophagus that may persist despite treatment with proton pump inhibitors. This eosinophilic infiltration is usually absent in the stomach, small intestine and colon, although there are a number of reports of patients with a multiorgan involvement. EoE is associated with abnormalities involving TH2-dependent immunity, with multiple environmental factors strongly contributing to disease expression. The layer of the esophagus affected by the eosinophilic infiltration causes the specific symptoms. Esophageal involvement results mostly in dysphagia for solids that can be severe enough to cause recurrent esophageal obstruction with typical endoscopic features suggesting esophageal remodeling and pathological changes of eosinophilic infiltration of the mucosa, sub-epithelial fibrosis and muscle hypertrophy. This disease is frequently associated with other allergic conditions such as allergic asthma, allergic dermatitis and eosinophilia. The treatment of patients with Eo E depends on the severity of the symptoms and of the inflammatory process as well as to their response to a gradual step-up treatment. The first line of treatment consists of steroid containing local inhalers. If unresponsive they are then treated with oral steroids. Intravenous interleukin blockers seem to have a consistent positive therapeutic effect.

Esophagitis and its causes:Who is “guilty” when acid is found “not guilty”?

Esophagitis is mainly a consequence of gastroesophageal reflux disease, one of the most common diseases affecting the upper digestive tract. However the esophageal mucosa can also be targeted by some infectious, systemic or chemical conditions. Eosinophilic esophagitis(Eo E) is an immune-mediated inflammatory disease, characterized by eosinophilic infiltration in the mucosa. Esophageal localization of Crohn's disease is not very common, but it should always be considered in patients with inflammatory bowel disease complaining of upper digestive tract symptoms. There are also forms of infectious esophagitis(e.g., Herpes simplex virus or Candida albicans) occurring in patients with a compromised immune system, either because of specific diseases or immunosuppressive therapies. Another kind of damage to esophageal mucosa is due to drug use(including oncologic chemotherapeutic regimens and radiotherapy) or caustic ingestion, usually of alkaline liquids, with colliquative necrosis and destruction of mucosa within a few seconds. Dysphagia is a predominant symptom in Eo E, while infectious, drug-induced and caustic damages usually cause chest pain and odynophagia. Endoscopy can be useful for diagnosing esophagitis, although no specific pattern can be identified. In conclusion when a patient refers upper gastrointestinal tract symptoms and the diagnosis of gastro-esophageal reflux disease is not convincing we should always carefully investigate the patient's clinical history to consider possibilities other than the gastric refluxate.

From reflux esophagitis to Barrett's esophagus and esophageal adenocarcinoma

The occurrence of gastroesophageal reflux disease is common in the human population.Almost all cases of esophageal adenocarcinoma are derived from Barrett's esophagus,which is a complication of esophageal adenocarcinoma precancerous lesions.Chronic exposure of the esophagus to gastroduodenal intestinal fluid is an important determinant factor in the development of Barrett's esophagus.The replacement of normal squamous epithelium with specific columnar epithelium in the lower esophagus induced by the chronic exposure to gastroduodenal fluid could lead to intestinal metaplasia,which is closely associated with the development of esophageal adenocarcinoma.However,the exact mechanism of injury is not completely understood.Various animal models of the developmental mechanisms of disease,and theoretical and clinical effects of drug treatment have been widely used in research.Recently,animal models employed in studies on gastroesophageal reflux injury have allowed significant progress.The advantage of using animal models lies in the ability to accurately control the experimental conditions for better evaluation of results.In this article,various modeling methods are reviewed,with discussion of the major findings on the developmental mechanism of Barrett's esophagus,which should help to develop better prevention and treatment strategies for Barrett's esophagus.

Clinical and endoscopic characteristics of drug-induced esophagitis

AIM: To investigate clinical, endoscopic and pathological characteristics of drug-induced esophagitis.