Test for the deep:magnetic loading characterization of elastomers under extreme hydrostatic pressures

Soft robot incarnates its unique advantages in deep-sea exploration,but grapples with high hydrostatic pressure’s unpredictable impact on its mechanical performances.In our previous work,a self-powered soft robot showed excellent work performance in the Mariana Trench at a depth of 11000 m,yet experienced notable degradation in deforming capability.Here,we propose a magnetic loading method for characterizing elastomer’s mechanical properties under extremely high hydrostatic pressure of up to 120 MPa.This method facilitates remote loading and enables in-situ observation,so that the dimensions and deformation at high hydrostatic pressure are obtained and used for calculations.The results reveal that the Young’s modulus of Polydimethylsiloxane(PDMS)monotonously increases with pressure.It is found that the relative increase in Young’s modulus is determined by its initial value,which is 8% for an initial Young’s modulus of 2200 kPa and 38% for 660 kPa.The relation between initial Young’s modulus and relevant increase can be fitted by an exponential function.The bulk modulus of PDMS is about 1.4 GPa at 20℃ and is barely affected by hydrostatic pressure.The method can quantify alterations in the mechanical properties of elastomers induced by hydrostatic pressure,and provide guidance for the design of soft robots which serve in extreme pressure environment.

Interfacial friction effects on sealing performances of elastomer packer

Elastomer sealing performance is of critical importance for downhole tools application including the use of fracturing(Frac)plugs during multi-stage hydraulic fracking.In practice sealing performances of such plugs are normally evaluated through pressure tests,and in numerical simulation studies,maximum contact stress,average contact stress and contact length data are used to determine sealing quality between a packer and casing.In previous studies,the impact of friction forces on sealing performance is often overlooked.This work aims to fill this knowledge gap in determining the influence of friction forces on elastomer packer sealing performances.We first determined the most appropriate constitutive hyperelastic model for the elastomers used in frac plug.Then we compared analytical calculation results with Finite Element Analysis simulation using a simplified tubular geometry and showed the significant influences on interfacial friction on elastomer packer stress distribution,deformation,and contact stress after setting.With the demonstration of validity of FEA method,we conducted systematic numerical simulation studies to show how the interfacial friction coefficients can affect the maximum contact stress,average contact stress,contact stress distribution,and maximum mises stress for an actual packer used in plug products.In addition,we also demonstrated how the groove in a packer can affect packer deformation and evolvement during setting with the consideration of interfacial stress.This study underscores the critical role that friction forces play in Frac plug performance and provides a new dimension for optimizing packer design by controlling interfacial interactions at the packer contact surfaces.

Bioremediation Potential of the Macroalga Ulva lactuca (Chlorophyta) for Ammonium Removal in Elastomer Industry Wastewater

During the production of nitrile rubber, significant amounts of nitrogen in the form of ammonium are generated in the wastewater. The discharge of this high-nitrogen wastewater can lead to serious environmental issues, including eutrophication, disruption of aquatic ecosystems, and groundwater contamination. To mitigate these impacts, this research explored the bioremediation capabilities of the macroalgae Ulva lactuca (Chlorophyta) for removing nitrogen from nitrile rubber production wastewater. The study employed single-phase and Michaelis-Menten decay models based on ammonium consumption, using various dilutions of wastewater to identify the optimal concentration for treatment. The physiological state of the macroalgae was monitored by measuring the photosynthetic capacity and specific growth rate during the experiments. In the presence of U. lactuca, ammonium concentrations decreased in all treatment groups, confirming that the ammonium kinetics conformed to both applied models. Our results show that U. lactuca effectively reduces ammonium concentrations, with an approximate removal rate of 0.020 µM·g−1·min−1 across different wastewater concentrations (70%, 80%, 90%, and 100%). Notably, the treatments with 70%, 80%, and 90% wastewater strength achieved about 67% reduction in ammonium, demonstrating the alga’s capacity to treat high-nitrogen wastewater. The photosynthetic performance of U. lactuca initially declined in control conditions but stabilized across all treatments, highlighting its adaptability. The kinetic analysis using the Michaelis-Menten model indicated a Vmax of 1342 μM·g−1·DMh−1, suggesting a robust capacity for ammonium uptake when fully saturated. Our study underscores the potential of Ulva lactuca as a cost-effective and efficient agent for wastewater bioremediation, particularly in settings with high nitrogen loads.

Stability analysis of a liquid crystal elastomer self-oscillator under a linear temperature field

Self-oscillating systems abound in the natural world and offer substantial potential for applications in controllers,micro-motors,medical equipments,and so on.Currently,numerical methods have been widely utilized for obtaining the characteristics of self-oscillation including amplitude and frequency.However,numerical methods are burdened by intricate computations and limited precision,hindering comprehensive investigations into self-oscillating systems.In this paper,the stability of a liquid crystal elastomer fiber self-oscillating system under a linear temperature field is studied,and analytical solutions for the amplitude and frequency are determined.Initially,we establish the governing equations of self-oscillation,elucidate two motion regimes,and reveal the underlying mechanism.Subsequently,we conduct a stability analysis and employ a multi-scale method to obtain the analytical solutions for the amplitude and frequency.The results show agreement between the multi-scale and numerical methods.This research contributes to the examination of diverse self-oscillating systems and advances the theoretical analysis of self-oscillating systems rooted in active materials.

Investigation on Magnetorheological Effect of Novel Self-healing Magnetorheological Elastomers

Magnetorheological elastomers(MREs)hold significant promise in various fields such as automotive engineering,and civil engineering,where they serve as intelligent materials.Depending on the application of an external magnetic field,these materials exhibit varying magnetorheological and viscoelastic properties,including shear stress,yield stress,dynamic moduli,and damping.In this work,a new type of MRE,termed self-healing MREs(SH-MREs),has been developed by adding a novel self-healing agent into existing MREs.The dynamic modulus and loss factor of SH-MREs with different compositions have been characterized under various conditions of frequency,temperature,and strain.The results show that as the strain value increases,the loss factor also increases.Moreover,the loss factor initially increases and then decreases with increasing magnetic field strength.Although higher concentrations of ferromagnetic particles increase the loss factor,they enhance the operational range due to their better responsiveness to magnetic fields.SH-MREs demonstrate improved damping capabilities,attributed to the formation of coordination bonds between ferromagnetic particles and the self-healing agent.The stable structure increases the viscosity of MREs.The results of the regression model suggest a direct proportionality between sensitivity to the magnetic field and the ferromagnetic particle concentration.

In silico optimization of actuation performance in dielectric elastomercomposites via integrated finite element modeling and deep learning

Dielectric elastomers(DEs)require balanced electric actuation performance and mechanical integrity under applied voltages.Incorporating high dielectric particles as fillers provides extensive design space to optimize concentration,morphology,and distribution for improved actuation performance and material modulus.This study presents an integrated framework combining finite element modeling(FEM)and deep learning to optimize the microstructure of DE composites.FEM first calculates actuation performance and the effective modulus across varied filler combinations,with these data used to train a convolutional neural network(CNN).Integrating the CNN into a multi-objective genetic algorithm generates designs with enhanced actuation performance and material modulus compared to the conventional optimization approach based on FEM approach within the same time.This framework harnesses artificial intelligence to navigate vast design possibilities,enabling optimized microstructures for high-performance DE composites.

Actively tunable sandwich acoustic metamaterials with magnetorheological elastomers

Sandwich structures are widespread in engineering applications because of their advantageous mechanical properties.Recently,their acoustic performance has also been improved to enable attenuation of low-frequency vibrations induced by noisy environments.Here,we propose a new design of sandwich plates(SPs)featuring a metamaterial core with an actively tunable low-frequency bandgap.The core contains magnetorheological elastomer(MRE)resonators which are arranged periodically and enable controlling wave attenuation by an external magnetic field.We analytically estimate the sound transmission loss(STL)of the plate using the space harmonic expansion method.The low frequency sound insulation performance is also analyzed by the equivalent dynamic density method,and the accuracy of the obtained results is verified by finite-element simulations.Our results demonstrate that the STL of the proposed plate is enhanced compared with a typical SP analog,and the induced bandgap can be effectively tuned to desired frequencies.This study further advances the field of actively controlled acoustic metamaterials,and paves the way to their practical applications.

Preparation and Properties of Spray Polyurea Elastomer for Aquaculture Foam Floating Balls

[Objectives] This study was conducted to develop a polyurea elastomer which can be sprayed on the surface of expanded polystyrene (EPS) floating balls, so as to improve the surface strength and service life of the floating balls. [Methods] The effects of the types and amounts of isocyanate, chain extenders and polyether polyols on the gelation rate, adhesion and wear resistance of polyurea elastomer were investigated, and it was finally determined the preparation process of polyurea elastomer using liquid isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI) and amino-terminated polyether (D2000) as the main raw materials, dimethylthiotoluene diamine (E300) as the chain extender and silica as the wear resistance modifier through two-step solution polymerization of prepolymerization and chain extension. [Results] The physical properties and chemical resistance tests of spray polyurea elastomer showed that it had good physical properties and acid and alkali resistance, and could meet the requirements of spraying and protection of EPS floating ball surface in marine environment. [Conclusions] Polyurea elastomer coating can improve the aging resistance, wear resistance and acid and alkali resistance of EPS floating balls, and prevent them from being fragile and floating randomly to form marine floating garbage which results in "white pollution".

Frequency domain analysis of pre-stressed elastomeric vibration isolators

Two types of elastomeric vibration isolators used for equipment vibration isolation in aerospace vehicles are considered for the present study. These isolators are constructed using elastomers mounted in steel encasings. These isolators are initially deformed statically and dynamic loads are applied on the deformed configuration. To capture the static deformation, equivalent static load corresponding to its load rating and specified displacements are created. Static deformation is computed using Finite Element methods with four node axi-symmetric element which include the geometric non-linear effect for steel and with standard Yeoh hyper-elastic material model for elastomers(Muhammed and Zu, 2012) [1]. Yeoh material constants are derived from uni-axial tension test data of the elastomer specimen. These isolators are subjected to harmonic and random excitations in the pre-deformed state. For numerical analysis, elastomeric constants at dynamic conditions are obtained as complex function of frequency using Dynamic Mechanical Analyzer(DMA) for a range of frequencies. The standard material model of Yeoh is modified incorporating frequency dependant material characteristics and damping in the range of frequencies of interest. A multiplicative non-separable variables law is derived for Yeoh material model to include the effect of static pre-stress, based on the methodology given in literature(Nashif et al.,1985;Beda et al., 2014) [2,3]. The modifications of Yeoh model suitable for frequency domain analysis is the novelty in the present study. In the analysis, while dynamic loads are applied, the configuration is updated considering initial static loading. The frequency response of the isolators is computed using material properties evaluated at progressive dynamic strains until a match in natural frequency is observed. Appropriate damping corrections are then incorporated to match the test observed transmissibility. Then updated material properties are used to compute the random response which showed good agreement with results of experiments, validating the approach taken for the development of this model.

Piezoresistive behavior of elastomer composites with segregated network of carbon nanostructures and alumina

Electrically conductive elastomer composites(CECs)with segregated networks of conductive nanofillers show high potential in stretchable strain sensors due to balanced mechanical and electrical properties,yet the sensitivity at low strain is generally insufficient for practical application.Herein,we report an easy and effective way to improve the resistive response to low strain for CECs with segregated network structure via adding stiff alumina into carbon nanostructures(CNS).The CEC containing 0.7 wt%CNS and 5 wt%Al_(2)O_(3) almost sustains the same elasticity(elongation at break of~900%)and conductivity(0.8 S/m)as the control,while the piezoresistive sensitivity is significantly improved.Thermoplastic polyurethane(TPU)composites with a segregated network of hybrid nanofillers(CNS and Al_(2)O_(3))show much higher strain sensitivity(Gauge factor,GF-566)at low strain(45%strain)due to a local stress concentration effect,this sensitivity is superior to that of TPU/CNS composites(GF-11).Such a local stress concentration effect depends on alumina content and its distribution at the TPU particle interface.In addition,CECs with hybrid fillers show better reproducibility in cyclic piezoresistive behavior testing than the control.This work offers an easy method for fabricating CECs with a segregated filler network offering stretchable strain sensors with a high strain sensitivity.

Numerical Analysis on Magnetic-induced Shear Modulus of Magnetorheological Elastomers Based on Multi-chain Model

Based on the magnetic interaction energy, using derivative of the magnetic energy density, a model is proposed to compute the magnetic-induced shear modulus of magnetorheological elastomers. Taking into account the influences of particles in the same chain and the particles in all adjacent chains, the traditional magnetic dipole model of the magnetorheological elastomers is modified. The influence of the ratio of the distance etween adjacent chains to the distance between adjacent particles in a chain on the magnetic induced shear odulus is quantitatively studied. When the ratio is large, the multi-chain model is compatible with the single chain model, but when the ratio is small, the difference of the two models is significant and can not be neglected. Making certain the size of the columns and the distance between adjacent columns, after constructing the computational model of BCT structures, the mechanical property of the magnetorheological elastomers composed of columnar structures is analyzed. Results show that, conventional point dipole model has overrated the magnetic-induced shear modulus of the magnetorheological elastomers. From the point of increasing the magnetic-induced shear modulus, when the particle volume fraction is small, the chain-like structure exhibits better result than the columnar structure, but when the particle volume fraction is large,the columnar structure will be better.

Preparation and electrostriction of BaTiO_3/polyurethane nanocomposite elastomers

BaTiO3/polyurethane （BaTiO3/PU） nanocomposite elastomers were prepared from barium titanate nanoparticles, polyester polyol, 2, 4-toluene diisocyanate, 1,4-butanediol and 1, 1, 1-trimethanol propane by the one-step method. The density, hardness and dielectric constant of BaTiO3/PU nanocomposite elastomers increased with the increase of the content of BaTiO3 nanoparticles in nanocomposites. The electrostrictive properties of BaTiO3/PU nanocomposite elastomers were investigated by the digital speckle correlation method （DSCM）. It was found that through the on-and-off of the electric field, the electrostrictive strains of BaTiO3/PU nanocomposite elastomers revealed corresponding shrinkage and recovery. The electrostrictive coefficient of BaTiO3/PU nanocomposite elastomers was greater than that of the corresponding polyurethane elastomers, and the electrostrictive coefficient of composites decreased with the increase of the content of barium titanate nanoparticles.

PC/PET/Elastomer共混物组成、结构与力学性能的研究

本文研究了ＰＣ／ＰＥＴ／Ｅｌａｓｔｏｍｅｒ共混物的主要力学性能与组成的关系。研究发现当ＰＣ／ＰＥＴ／Ｅｌａｓｔｏｍｅｒ的组成比例为８０／１５～２５／２～５时，共混物具有最好的力学性能，良好的加工性，并且表面光滑。

New method for measuring high field electrostrictive response of barium titanate/polyurethane elastomer

A new method for measuring the characteristic of electrostriction by a digital speckle correlation method （DSCM） is presented. The in-plane displacement is obtained by using the DSCM, and the out-plane displacement is obtained by the geometrical relation of the triangle theory. In this application, high field electrostrictive strains of barium titanate/polyurethane elastomer composite materials are measured. The electrostrictive strain is evaluated when the application of an electric field is repeated, and then the electrostrictive coefficient of the sample is obtained. To improve the measuring accuracy, the bilinear interpolation of gray value is used to obtain the sub-pixel gray value. The results are compared with those obtained from the surface fitting algorithm. The experimental results demonstrate that the electrostrictive response of polyurethane increases with the introduction of barium titanate into polyurethane. And by using the DSCM, the measurement of the characteristic of electrostriction can be done quickly and accurately. The DSCM provides an effective tool for the evaluation of electrostrictive response.

Effect of Cyclic Deformation on Magnetorheological Elastomers

Fatigue properties of magnetorheological elastomer （MRE） samples were investigated based on cis-polybutadiene rubber by using a fatigue test machine. Three MRE samples with iron particles mass fraction of 60%, 70%, and 80% were fabricated, and their properties dependence of three strain amplitudes （50%, 75%, and 100%） were measured. The absolute magnetorheological （MR） effect, storage modulus, and loss modulus of MRE samples after fatigue were evaluated by a modified dynamic mechanical analyzer. The results revealed that MR effect, storage modulus, and loss modulus of MREs containing 80% iron particles depended strongly on the strain amplitudes and the number of cycles, while storage mod-ulus and loss modulus of MREs containing 70% iron particles also depended on the strain amplitudes and the number of cycles but not as strongly as sample which contains 80% iron particles, but the properties of MREs containing 60% iron particles after cyclic deforma-tion were almost independent of the fatigued conditions. In order to investigate the fatigue mechanism of MREs, the sample was carried out with a quasi-static tensile testing and its surface morphology during testing was observed in situ by scanning electron microscopy.

Performance Investigation of Cone Dielectric Elastomer Actuator Using Taguchi Method

Dielectric elastomer actuator （DEA） show promise for mechatronic applications due to the advantages of dielectric elastomer, such as lightweight, flexible, low cost, high strain, etc, and many configurations of DEAs have been demonstrated. As a kind of linear actuator, cone DEAs are studied in some laboratory prototypes due to easy manufacturing, however, their performance have not been exploited fully. Based on the working principle of DEA, a four-bar linkage mechanism is designed to provide negative stiffness preload, which can increase displacement output of actuator （outer diameter 100 mm） to 17 mm. Three cone actuating units are assembled in parallel to enhance the maximum force output to 5.07 N. Loading experiments of actuator in forward and backward strokes are performed, the experimental results show that backward stroke has stronger actuating capability than forward stroke, accordingly application of actuator is recommended. Four factors rather than applied voltage, i.e., number of actuating units, pre-stretch ratio, inner diameter, and outer diameter, are determined as influencing factors for Taguchi method. Then the performance objectives of actuator, i.e., displacement output, maximum force output, and maximum work in backward stroke, are investigated based on L9（34） Taguchi orthogonal design. The mean signal-to-noise （S/N） ratio based on the larger-the-better criterion is calculated according to the acquired displacement and force output. Analytical results show that outer diameter has the most significant influence on displacement output, and maximum force out and work output are influenced most by number of actuating units. Inner diameter also has an important effect on the performance objectives of actuator, while pre-stretch ratio has the least influence. The proposed performance investigation is helpful for the design and application of cone actuator in mechatronic system.

Preparation and Mechanical Performance of Rare Earth- Containing Composite Elastomer

Rare earth -containing PSBR sheet was prepared by reaction of rare earth alkoxide with quaternary ammonium salt of pyridine modified SBR (PSBR) latex, and then it was blended with natural rubber (NR) to produce rare earth - containing composite elastomer. It is found that mechanical performance can be improved remarkably. Analyzed by infrared spectrometry (IR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and cross-linking densitometry, the relationship between structure and performance was discussed.

Large conversion of energy in dielectric elastomers by electromechanical phase transition

When air is pumped in, a tubular balloon initially inflates slightly and homogeneously. A short section of the balloon then forms a bulge, which coexists with the unbulged section of the balloon. As more air is pumped in, the bulged section elongates at the expense of the unbulged section, until the entire balloon is bulged. The phenomenon is analogous to the liquid-to-vapor phase transition. Here we study the bulging transition in a dielectric elastomer tube as air is pumped into the balloon and a voltage is applied through the thickness of the membrane. We formulate the condition for coexistent budged and unbulged sections, and identify allowable states set by electrical breakdown and mechanical rupture. We find that the bulging transition dramatically amplifies electromechanical energy conversion. Energy converted in an electromechanical cycle consisting of unbulged and bulged states is thousands of times that in an electromechanical cycle consisting of only unbulged states.

Damping of magnetorheological elastomers

The damping property of magnetorheological elastomers(MREs) is characterized by a modified dynamic mechanical-magnetic coupled analyzer.The influence of external magnetic flux density,damping of matrix,content of iron particles,dynamic strain and driving frequency on the MREs' damping was investigated experimentally.The results indicate that the MREs' damping property depends on the interfacial slip between the inner particles and the matrix.Different from the general composite materials,the interfacial slip in MRE is affected by the external applied magnetic field.

Ionic Elastomers for Electric Actuators and Sensors

In the past decades,ion conductive polymers and elastomers have drawn worldwide attention for their advanced functions in batteries,electroactive soft robotics,and sensors.Stretchable ionic elastomers with dispersed soft ionic moieties such as ionic liquids have gained remarkable attention as soft sensors,in applications such as the wearable devices that are often called electric skins.A considerable amount of research has been done on ionic-elastomer-based strain,pressure,and shear sensors;however,to the best of our knowledge,this research has not yet been reviewed.In this review,we summarize the materials and performance properties of engineered ionic elastomer actuators and sensors.First,we review three classes of ionic elastomer actuators—namely,ionic polymer metal composites,ionic conducting polymers,and ionic polymer/carbon nanocomposites—and provide perspectives for future actuators,such as adaptive four-dimensional(4D)printed systems and ionic liquid crystal elastomers(iLCEs).Next,we review the state of the art of ionic elastomeric strain and pressure sensors.We also discuss future wearable strain sensors for biomechanical applications and sports performance tracking.Finally,we present the preliminary results of iLCE sensors based on flexoelectric signals and their amplification by integrating them with organic electrochemical transistors.