Placement optimization of Multi-Type fault current limiters based on genetic algorithm

The fault current limiter(FCL)is an effective measure for improving system stability and suppressing short-circuit fault current.Because of space and economic costs,the optimum placement of FCLs is vital in industrial applications.In this study,two objectives with the same dimensional measurement unit,namely,the total capital investment cost of FCLs and circuit breaker loss related to short-circuit currents,are considered.The circuit breaker loss model is developed based on the attenuation rule of the circuit breaker service life.The circuit breaker loss is used to quantify the current-limiting effect to avoid the problem of weight selection in a multi-objective problem.The IEEE 10-generator 39-bus system in New England is used to evaluate the performance of the proposed genetic algorithm(GA)method.Comparative and sensitivity analyses are performed.The results of the optimized plan are validated through simulations,indicating the significant potential of the GA for such optimization.

Study of the Fast-Closing Switch Used for Fault Current Limiters in Power System

This paper presents a new type of fault current limiter (FCL) based on fast closing switch, which is composed of a capacitor bank and a reactor in series. The main control component is a fast closing switch connected in parallel with the capacitors, which is driven by the electromagnetic repulsion force. It can response the order within 1 ms. When fault occurs, the switch closes and the capacitors are bypassed, and the fault current is limited by the reactor. Simulation analysis and experiment show that the electromagnetic repulsion force actuator can meet the demand of fast closing switch, it is feasible to develop the FCL with low cost and high reliability.

A review of superconducting fault current limiters compared with other proven technologies

Several substations in operation were commissioned decades ago.These substations are overstressed,then their protection equipment cannot provide an effective safety condition to the system.In the worst cases,short‐circuits can cause permanent damage to the system if the overcurrent is higher than the capacity of the installed equipment.There are some possible solutions for those cases:replace all the equipment in the overstressed substation,build a new one in parallel or install a fault current limiter(FCL)device.From an economic point of view,introducing FCLs in the power system is the best way to solve the described problem.The commercial solutions available are the pyrotechnic FCL,air coil reactor,neutral earthing resistor,and high impedance transformer.However,these devices are limited and present several drawbacks.Since the’70s,there has been a search for reliable FCL devices that do not interfere in the regular operation of substations and could limit the fault currents to the protection system rated level.There were so many FCL technologies proposed in the last decades.These proposed new devices may use superconducting technologies,power electronics,or both.This paper reviews proven FCL technologies,focusing on full‐scale devices demonstrated in field and lab tests.The goal is to introduce the main FCL technologies in development and discuss didactically their operation principle,the built prototypes,the commercial units,whether they exist,and the main drawbacks for each technology presented.A final analysis of the level of maturity for each FCL technology is discussed using the TRL(Technology readiness level)scale in order to find technologies with more potential for mass production.The three technologies closer to the full commercial application are:the Resistive Superconducting FCL,the Saturated Iron Core FCL,and the Series Reactor FCL.

Design aspects of transmission voltage superconducting fault current limiters with YBCO tapes in China

The design progress of superconducting fault current limiter(SFCL)for transmission voltage is presented,with a focus on the results of recent key experiments that have led to a state‐of‐the‐art high‐voltage high‐capacity super‐conducting current limiting techniques:the resistive alternating current(AC)SFCL,saturated iron cores AC SFCL,and resistive direct current(DC)SFCL.The main driving factors for designing SFCL in these projects are the preparation of high‐performance superconducting materials,the development of large‐scale superconducting current limiting winding,system testing,and operation technology.Based on the authors’experience with both AC and DC SFCLs,this paper focuses on the main design aspects of resistive SFCL at transmission voltage.The relationship between the hot spot caused by the inhomogeneity of long superconducting tape and the overall parameter selection is presented.In addition,the thermal calculation based on the current limiting resistance and a real‐time current curve is also proposed for the parameter design of the current limiting winding.

A novel fault current limiter topology design based on liquid metal current limiter

The liquid metal current limiter(LMCL)is regarded as a viable solution for reducing the fault current in a power grid.But demonstrating the liquid metal arc plasma self-pinching process of the resistive wall,and reducing the erosion of the LMCL are challenging,not only theoretically,but also practically.In this work,a novel LMCL is designed with a resistive wall that can be connected to the current-limiting circuit inside the cavity.Specifically,a novel fault current limiter(FCL)topology is put forward where the novel LMCL is combined with a fast switch and current-limiting reactor.Further,the liquid metal self-pinch effect is modeled mathematically in three dimensions,and the gas-liquid two-phase dynamic diagrams under different short-circuit currents are obtained by simulation.The simulation results indicate that with the increase of current,the time for the liquid metal-free surface to begin depressing is reduced,and the position of the depression also changes.Different kinds of bubbles formed by the depressions gradually extend,squeeze,and break.With the increase of current,the liquid metal takes less time to break,but breaks still occur at the edge of the channel,forming arc plasma.Finally,relevant experiments are conducted for the novel FCL topology.The arcing process and current transfer process are analyzed in particular.Comparisons of the peak arc voltage,arcing time,current limiting efficiency,and electrode erosion are presented.The results demonstrate that the arc voltage of the novel FCL topology is reduced by more than 4.5times and the arcing time is reduced by more than 12%.The erosions of the liquid metal and electrodes are reduced.Moreover,the current limiting efficiency of the novel FCL topology is improved by 1%–5%.This work lays a foundation for the topology and optimal design of the LMCL.

A Fault Current Limiting Hybrid DC Circuit Breaker

Due to the low impedance characteristic of the high voltage direct current(HVDC)grid,the fault current rises extremely fast after a DC-side fault occurs,and this phenomenon seriously endangers the safety of the HVDC grid.In order to suppress the rising speed of the fault current and reduce the current interruption requirements of the main breaker(MB),a fault current limiting hybrid DC circuit breaker(FCL-HCB)has been proposed in this paper,and it has the capability of bidirectional fault current limiting and fault current interruption.After the occurrence of the overcurrent in the HVDC grid,the current limiting circuit(CLC)of FCL-HCB is put into operation immediately,and whether the protected line is cut off or resumed to normal operation is decided according to the fault detection result.Compared with the traditional hybrid DC circuit breaker(HCB),the required number of semiconductor switches and the peak value of fault current after fault occurs are greatly reduced by adopting the proposed device.Extensive simulations also verify the effectiveness of the proposed FCL-HCB.

Control-based Fault Current Limiter for Minimizing Impact of Distributed Generation Units on Protection Systems

Distributed generation units(DGUs)bring some problems to the existing protection system,such as those associated with protection blinding and sympathetic tripping.It is known that fault current limiters(FCLs)help minimize the negative impact of DGUs on the protection system.In this paper,a control-based FCL is proposed,i.e.,the FCL is integrated into the DGU control law.To this end,a predictive control strategy with fault current limitation is suggested.In this way,a DGU is controlled,not only for power exchange with the power grid but also to limit its fault current contribution.The proposal is posed as a constrained optimization problem allowing taking into account the current limit explicitly in the design process as a closed-loop solution.A linear approximation is proposed to cope with the inherent nonlinear constraints.The proposal does not require incorporating extra equipment or mechanisms in the control loop,making the design process simple.To evaluate the proposed control-based FCL,both protection blinding and sympathetic tripping scenarios are considered.The control confines the DGU currents within the constraints quickly,avoiding large transient peaks.Therefore,the impact on the protection system is reduced without the necessity that the DGU goes out of service.

Joint Limiting Control Strategy Based on Virtual Impedance Shaping for Suppressing DC Fault Current and Arm Current in MMC-HVDC Systems

This paper proposes a joint limiting control strategy for suppressing DC fault current and arm current in modular multilevel converter-based high-voltage direct current(MMC-HVDC) systems, which includes two target-oriented current limiting controls. To limit the DC fault current in the early fault stage, an equivalent modular multilevel converter(MMC) impedance is obtained, and its high-frequency part is reshaped by introducing virtual impedance, which is realized by adjusting the inserted submodules adaptively. Following the analysis of MMC control characteristics, the arm current limiting strategy is investigated, with results showing that the inner-loop control has significant effects on arm current and that a simple low-pass filter can reduce the arm current in the fault period. Finally, by combining the virtual impedance shaping and innerloop control, the fault currents of DC lines and MMC arms can be suppressed simultaneously, which can not only alleviate the interrupting pressure of the DC circuit breaker, but also prevent the MMC from being blocked by the arm overcurrent. Theoretical analysis conclusions and the proposed strategy are verified offline by a digital time-domain simulation on Power Systems Computer Aided Design/Electromagnetic Transients including DC platform, and experiment on a real-time digital simulator platform.

Interruption Characteristics of High-speed Switches in 500 kV Fault Current Limiter with High Coupled Split Reactance

A 500 kV high-voltage AC fault current limiter(FCL)based on a high coupled split reactor(HCSR)is pro-posed by the National key R&D project team.Low impedance under normal conditions and high impedance under short-circuit conditions are accomplished by the cooperation of HCSR and high-speed switches.High-speed switches play an important role in current limiting processes,thus interruption characteristics of the high-speed switch in the 500 kV FCL are studied in this paper.The simulation model of the FCL and the external equivalent power grid are established.The short-circuit current and recovery voltage characteristics of the high-speed switch in FCL are simulated.The results show that maximum DC component of the short-circuit current of the high-speed switch reaches 91%,the maximum peak value is 118 kA,and the longest arcing time is 14.8 ms.There is a discontinuity in the curve of the short-circuit current peak and arcing time as a function of the short-circuit occurrence time;the peak recovery voltage of a single break of the high-speed switch has a maximum value of 87.5 kV under a three-phase ungrounded short-circuit condition,and the rate of rise of recovery voltage is o.22 kV/s.The recovery voltage peak shows a period change with the short-circuit occurrence time,and the period is 10 ms.The effects of the shunt capacitor value and short-circuit ground resistance on the recovery voltage of high-speed switching are also studied.The research can be used for reference by R&D personnel and testersof500kVFCLs.Index Terms-Fault current limiter(FCL),high coupled split reactor(HCSR),high-speed switch,interruption characteristics,short circuit current.

A Similarity Comparison Based Pilot Protection Scheme for VSC-HVDC Grids Considering Fault Current Limiting Strategy

In the voltage source converter based high-voltage direct current(VSC-HVDC)grids,fast and reliable protections are the key technologies.The traditional protection schemes are easily affected by fault resistance,line distributed capacitance,etc.Meanwhile,the influence of fault current limiting strategy(FCLS)has not been fully considered.In this paper,the fault characteristics under FCLS and the feasibility of traditional travelling wave protections are analyzed.To improve the reliability and sensibility,a similarity comparison based pilot protection scheme is proposed,which focuses on the relationship between the fault characteristics and the state of the protected transmission line,with the establishment of a precise frequencydependent transmission line model.The criteria based on the similarity comparison calculated by cross-wavelet can identify the fault effectively.Meanwhile,the protection scheme can also endure the influence of error synchronization.Finally,the protection performance is verified in the PSCAD/EMTDC under different fault conditions.

Fault Current Limitation with Superconducting YBCO Thin Films

The behavior of YBCO/metal bilayers under transport currents was explored in the framework of fault current limitation (FCL). Properties of the superconducting-normal transition were first studied phenomenologically during sweep current experiments. For current rates higher than 500 A/s, the transition into the normal state was based on non-thermal phenomena and was characterized by a flux creep regime ended by a jump into the normal state. At lower sweep rates, a total diversion of the current in the metallic shunt was observed for temperatures higher than 85K. In this regime, a partial recovery of the superconducting state took place due to a finite thermal resistance between the superconducting and the metallic films. These two properties of partial diversion into the shunt and of fast switching for a quick rise of the current during a default were exploited for current limitation at 77 K. FCL experiments at 50 Hz show that YBCO/Au bilayers limit the current in about 1ms at a value of 2. 5/c by developing electrical fields as high as 3kV/m. Moreover, a recovery of the zero resistance state could occur under rated mode. A straightforward application of this property would be the transformer connection. Finally, results on DC current limitation and recovery under nominal mode were presented for the first time.

Analysis and Control of Modular Multi-terminal DC Power Flow Controller with Fault Current Limiting Function

In order to overcome the problems of power flow control and fault current limiting in multi-terminal high voltage direct current(MTDC)grids,this paper proposes a modular multi-terminal DC power flow controller(MM-DCPFC)with fault current limiting function.The topology structure,operation principle,and equivalent circuit of MM-DCPFC are introduced,and such a structure has the advantages of modularity and scalability.The power balance mechanism is studied and a hierarchical power balance control strategy is proposed.The results show that MM-DCPFC can achieve internal power exchange,which avoids the use of external power supply.The fault characteristics of MM-DCPFC are analyzed,fault current limiting and self-protection methods are proposed,and the factors affecting the current limiting capability are studied.The simulation models are established in PLECS,and the simulation results verify the effectiveness of MM-DCPFC in power flow control,fault current limiting,and scalability.In addition,a prototype is developed to validate the function and control method of MM-DCPFC.

Coordination Method for DC Fault Current Suppression and Clearance in DC Grids

The modular multilevel converter(MMC)based DC grid is considered as a future solution for bulk renewable energy integration and transmission.However,the high probability of DC faults and their rapid propagation speed are the main challenges in the development of DC grids.Existing research primarily focuses on the DC fault clearance methods,while the fault current suppression methods are still barely researched.Additionally,the coordination method of fault current suppression and clearance needs to be optimized.In this paper,the technical characteristics of the current suppression methods are studied,and the coordinated methods of fault current suppression and clearance are proposed.At last,a cost comparison of these methods is presented.The research results show that the proposed strategies can reduce the cost of the protection equipment.

A Review of Series Voltage Source Converter with Fault Current Limiting Function

The series voltage source converter(SVSC)is widely used in the power electronic equipment,such as series active power filter,dynamic voltage restorer,unified power flow controller and so on.However,while the SVSC is more vulnerable to the impact of fault current,its applications are increasing,bringing huge challenges to the safe operation of the grid.In recent years,the topology and control strategy of the series voltage source converter with fault current limiting(SVSC-FCL)are a research hotspot.In this paper,it suggests classifying SVSC-FCL based SVSC into two groups:the control scheme optimization group and the existing topology improvement group.The research challenges and perspectives of the SVSC-FCL are introduced in detail.This paper aims to illustrate current research progress on SVSC-FCL and enrich the available pool of the multi-functional power electronic equipment.

Fabrication of HTS dc Bias Coil for 35 kV/90 MVA SFCL

For a saturated iron core fault current limiter, superconductor is the only suitable material to make the dc bias coil, especially when the device is used in a high voltage power grid. Commonly, superconducting wires are used to wind the dc bias coil Since the performance of the wires changes greatly under magnetic fields, the calculation of the field spatial distraction is essential to the optimization of the superconducting magnet. A superconducting coil with 141000 ampere-turns magnetizing capacity made of 17600 meters of BSCCO 2223 HTS tapes was fabricated. This coil was built for a 35 kV/90 MVA saturated iron-core fault current limiter. Computer simulations on magnetic field distribution were carried out to optimize the structural design, and experiments were done to verify the performance of the coil The configuration and the key parameters of the coil will be reported in this paper.

Superconducting fault current limiter(SFCL)for fail-safe DC-DC conversion:From power electronic device to micro grid protection

In DC micro grids and networks,DC-DC power converters having a large number of semiconductor-based power electronic devices are usually adopted to interconnect the renewable sources and flexible loads.Most of the semiconductor-based devices suffer from poor fault withstanding abilities,but conventional power electronic protection schemes have the bottlenecks of the time-delay,self-malfunction and mis-judgement.This paper presents a novel solution using the superconducting fault current limiter(SFCL)to protect a power electronic device and extend the usage to a micro grid.This SFCL is actually a self-triggering,recoverable,and passive current limiter,which does not involve any additional circuit hardware and software.Experimental investigations and simulation analyses clarify the feasibility of using this superconductor-based protection scheme to implement the self-acting fail-safe protection of DC-DC converters.Further system-level simulations explore the SFCL to suppress the over-current and stabilize the bus voltage of a photovoltaic based DC micro grid,particularly facing millisecond-level transients and faults.Our experimental and theoretical investigations lay some technical bases to establish a superconductor-semiconductor-coupled interdisciplinary application from the view from the applied superconductivity,to power electronics,and to micro grids.

SC Currents Minimization in Distributed Generation Embedded Distribution Networks with Optimal Application of FCLs

For meeting the increased demand of electrical power,distributed generation(DG)based on renewable energy resources(RERs),has become a potential alternative to large plants based on fossil fuels.The power from environmentally friendly RERs is available at a competitive price due to technological advancements in recent times.Moreover,optimal allocation of DG at the distribution network(DN)level may result in power loss reduction,improvement in voltage profile and the network’s overall reliability.However,integration of DG may increase the short circuit(SC)level beyond the capacity of the protection gear,conductors,transformers and other components of a DN.The high short circuit currents(SCCs)may be reduced by application of a fault current limiter(FCL).However,most of the existing literature proposes optimization of FCLs size by considering only normal configurations of a DN.This approach is inappropriate as it may fail to produce the desired reduction in SCCs in different N−1 contingency scenarios.In this paper,a new strategy is presented that considers both normal as well as various contingency situations for optimal allocation of FCLs in a DN with DG connection.The strategy is implemented in the IEEE 30-bus system in a MATLAB environment using a genetic algorithm(GA).The simulation results prove that the proposed strategy is effective in determining the optimal FCLs size that restricts the SCCs to a safe level in different operating conditions including N−1 contingencies and thus,improves network safety and reliability.The strategy described in the paper can play an important role in DN planning involving optimal application of DG and FCLs.

Topology of Current-limiting and Energy-transferring DC Circuit Breaker for DC Distribution Networks

With the development of power electronic technologies and distributed power generation,DC distribution networks attract increasing attention due to their various advantages compared with traditional AC distribution networks.However,DC fault protection is one of the major issues in DC distribution networks.To improve their reliability and protect the semiconductor devices under DC faults,a current-limiting and energy-transferring DC circuit breaker topology is proposed in this paper.By applying passive components and thyristors,the proposed topology is capable of quickly limiting the fault current and transferring the faulty energy.The working principle,mathematical model and parameter designing method of the proposed topology are presented in this paper.The simulation results verify that the proposed DC circuit breaker could effectively limit the fault current and quickly interrupt the fault current.Cost and conduction power loss evaluation proves the practicality of the proposed topology in medium-voltage DC distribution networks.

A Hybrid Circuit Breaker Based on Current Commutation Approach for Multi-feeder DC Railway Substations

The paper presents an economic hybrid circuit breaker for limiting and interrupting the faults in DC railways substations. For fast fault current interruption, the hybrid breaker incorporates high speed mechanical contacts actuated by power semiconductor devices. Additionally, to avoid formation of electric arc, a commutation circuit is used to inject a counter current during fault interruption. In a real railway substation, each feeder is connected to the main DC bus through an expensive air magnetic DC circuit breaker and to an auxiliary DC bus through another expensive breaker. This leads to high cost especially in railway substation with multi feeders which are used to energize the vehicle transmission lines. In this paper, all DC breakers in DC railway substations are replaced by the suggested circuit breaker, which consists of a high speed mechanical contact with two semiconductor devices in each feeder and only one commutation circuit for injecting the counter current in all faulted feeders. The fault diagnosis is designed to detect the abnormal condition (current or voltage) in all feeders and direct the injected current from the commutation circuit to the faulted feeder only when the abnormal reaches a predetermine level. The suggested breaker is able to detect and interrupt any cascading of faults.