3-D Geological Modeling-Concept,Methods and Key Techniques

3-D geological modeling plays an increasingly important role in Petroleum Geology, Mining Geology and Engineering Geology. The complexity of geological conditions requires different modeling methods in different situations. This paper summarizes the general concept of geological modeling; compares the characteristics of borehole-based modeling, cross-section based modeling and multi- source interactive modeling; analyses key techniques in 3-D geological modeling; and highlights the main difficulties and directions of future studies.

Simulation of subcritical flow pattern in 180° uniform and convergent open-channel bends using SSIIM 3-D model

In meandering rivers, the flow pattern is highly complex, with specific characteristics at bends that are not observed along straight paths. A numerical model can be effectively used to predict such flow fields. Since river bends are not uniform-some are divergent and others convergent-in this study, after the SSIIM 3-D model was calibrated using the result of measurements along a uniform 180° bend with a width of 0.6 m, a similar but convergent 180v bend, 0.6 m to 0.45 m wide, was simulated using the SSI1M 3-D numerical model. Flow characteristics of the convergent 180° bend, including lengthwise and vertical velocity profiles, primary and secondary flows, lengthwise and widtbwise slopes of the water surface, and the helical flow strength, were compared with those of the uniform 180° bend. The verification results of the model show that the numerical model can effectively simulate the flow field in the uniform bend. In addition, this research indicates that, in a convergent channel, the maximum velocity path at a plane near the water surface crosses the channel＇s centerline at about a 30° to 40° cross-section, while in the uniform bend, this occurs at about the 50° cross-section. The varying range of the water surface elevation is wider in the convergent channel than in the uniform one, and the strength of the helical flow is generally greater in the uniform channel than in the convergent one. Also, unlike the uniform bend, the convergent bend exhibits no rotational cell against the main direction of secondary flow rotation at the 135° cross-section.

A Higher-Efficient Non-Hydrostatic Finite Volume Model for Strong Three-Dimensional Free Surface Flows and Sediment Transport

In order to accurately simulate strong three-dimensional （3-D） free surface flows and sediment transport, the fully 3- D non-hydrostatic pressure models are developed based on the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations and convection-diffusion equation of sediment concentration with the mixing triangle and quadrilateral grids. The governing equations are discretized with the unstructured finite volume method in order to provide conservation properties of mass and momentum, and flexibility with practical application. It is shown that it is first-order accurate on nonuniform plane two-dimensional （2-D） grids and second-order accurate on uniform plane grids. A third-order approximation of the vertical velocity at the top-layer is applied. In such a way, free surface zero stress boundary condition is satisfied maturely, and very few vertical layers are needed to give an accurate solution even for complex discontinuous flow and short wave simulation. The model is applied to four examples to simulate strong 3-D free surface flows and sediment transport where non-hydrostatic pressures have a considerable effect on the velocity field. The newly developed model is verified against analytical solutions with an excellent agreement.

Formation of the Tibetan Plateau during the India-Eurasia Convergence:Insight from 3-D Multi-Terrane Thermomechanical Modeling

Various models exist to explain the formation of the Tibetan Plateau,including“tectonic escape”,“pure shear thickening”,“convective removal of the lithospheric mantle”,and“lower crustal flow”model.The first two models are primarily constructed on pure mechanical models but are unable to reasonably explain the tension and shear phenomena inside the plateau.The latter two are rheological dynamic models based on deep geophysical observations.However,the spatial range of the lower crustal flow and its role in the plateau formation/uplift remain controversial.Five multi-terrane viscoplastic thermomechanical models were constructed to simulate the uplift and lithospheric structure change of the Tibetan Plateau during the post-collision stage(since 35 Ma)under the convergence of the Indian Plate.Results show that the plateau's formation begins with crustal thickening,blocked by strong terranes at the northern plateau,and expanded laterally to the east.The lithosphere thickens gradually and experiences delamination at its base,elevating temperature within the crust and forming partial melting layers in the central plateau.As convergence persists on the southern side,the northern plateau's lithosphere bends downward and undergoes delamination,further heating the crust and promoting the northward and eastward flow of partial melting layers,leading to secondary uplift around the plateau.

A New Efficient Finite Volume Modeling of Small Amplitude Free Surface Flows with Unstructured Grid

A staggered finite-volume technique for non-hydrostatic, small amplitude free surface flow governed by the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations is presented there is a proper balance between accuracy and computing time. The advection and horizontal diffusion terms in the momentum equation are discretized by an integral interpolation method on the orthogonal unstructured staggered mesh and, while it has the attractive property of being conservative. The pressure-correction algorithm is employed for the non-hydrostatic pressure in order to achieve second-order temporal accuracy. A conservative scalar transport algorithm is also applied to discretize k - c equations in this model. The eddy viscosity is calculated from the k-c turbulent model. The resulting model is mass and momentum conservative. The model is verified by two examples to simulate unsteady small amplitude free surface flows where non-hydrostatic pressures have a considerable effect on the velocity field, and then applied to simulate the tidal flow in the Bohai Sea.

The Application of 3-D Visible Technology to Reservoir Management

The paper deals with the application of 3 -D visible technology to reservoir management. Making use of this method for expanding - spread data point in reservoir management, can discard the false and retain the true during data recording. As a result, The quality of data recording is ensured. In reservoir description, the reservoir characteristics, such as space distribution,physical change and fluid distribution may be identified by restoring palaeostructures, building - up 3-D facics tract model and 3-D fracture system model. Seismic interpretation, geologic modeling and numerical simulation are well integrated so that they can be promote reservoir performance management to develop into the intensive management pattern.

番禺30-1砂岩强水驱气藏储层非均质性研究

针对垂向非均质性严重且边底水能量强的番禺30-1气田面临的潜在开发问题,通过岩心分析及测井二次解释,对其夹层特征及储层非均质性等进行了研究,划分出19个流动单元并定量描述了各流动单元的特征参数,建立了该气田的精细地质模型。综合评价表明,新建的地质模型具有较高的精度,为该气藏合理开发提供了坚实的地质基础。

THREE-DIMENSIONAL NUMERICAL MODELING OF SECONDARY FLOWS IN A WIDE CURVED CHANNEL

Most natural rivers are curved channels, where the turbulent flows have a complex helical pattern, as has been extensively studied both numerically and experimentally. The helical flow structure in curved channels has an important bearing on sediment transport, riverbed evolution, and pollutant transport study. In this article, different turbulence closure schemes i.e., the mixing-length model and the k-ε model with different pressure solution techniques i. e., hydrostatic assumptions and dynamic pressure treatments are applied to study the helical secondary flows in an experiment curved channel. The agreements of vertically-averaged velocities between the simulated results obtained by using different turbulence models with different pressure solution techniques and the measured data are satisfactory. Their discrepancies with respect to surface elevations, superelevations and secondary flow patterns are discussed.

A NUMERICAL MODEL FOR 3-D FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS

A 3-D model based on the Reynolds equations with closed k-ε turbulence model is presented in this paper,which can be used to predict surface water flow in open channels.In- stead of the“rigid lid”approximation,the solution of the free surface equation is implemented in the velocity-pressure iterative procedure on the basis of the conventional SIMPLE method.This model was used to compute the flow in rectangular channels with trenches dredged across the bot- tom.The velocity,eddy viscosity coefficient,turbulent shear stress,turbulent kinetic energy and elevation of the free surface over the trenches dredged in the main channel,can be obtained. The computed results are in good agreement with existing experimentaing data.

河流相致密砂岩气藏剩余气精细表征及挖潜对策——以苏里格气田中区SSF井区为例

苏里格河流相致密砂岩气藏自投入开发以来,由于不同层位、不同位置地层压力的不均匀下降造成了储量动用不均衡,井间及层间存在大量剩余气资源。为提高气藏储量动用程度和天然气采收率,开展了精细储层构型表征、高精度三维地质建模和气藏数值模拟一体化研究,剖析了河流相致密砂岩储层剩余气形成机制及控制因素,建立了剩余气赋存模式,提出了针对性的挖潜对策。研究结果表明:(1)在单一辫流带/曲流带识别基础上,利用直井、定向井资料,定量刻画单砂体内部构型特征,研究区心滩平均宽度450 m,平均长度1040 m;点坝平均跨度950 m,平均宽度1100 m;落淤层平均宽度340 m,平均长度620 m,厚度0.2~0.8 m,倾角0.07°~0.37°;侧积层厚度0.2~0.8 m,倾角3°~7°。(2)分析了河流相致密砂岩储层中3类阻流单元及其对天然气渗流的阻流作用,并将研究区剩余气富集模式划分为:阻流型、井网未控制型、射孔未采出型、未射孔型4种。(3)针对阻流型剩余气采用重复压裂、钻加密井挖潜,针对井网未控制型采用老井侧钻、钻加密井挖潜,针对射孔未采出型采用气井精细化管理、排水采气挖潜,针对未射孔型采用查层补孔挖潜。(4)基于剩余气精细综合表征结果优化部署直井2口,水平井8口,完钻2口水平井测试地层压力平均为28.2 MPa,验证了井网未控制型剩余气的存在。结论认为,所提出的河流相致密砂岩气藏剩余气精细表征方法和挖潜对策,有助于提升气田天然气储量动用程度和采收率,为气藏的经济高效开发提供了技术支撑。

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF 3-D TURBULENT BEND FLOWS IN OPEN CHANNEL

A generalized hend flow model, treating a 90° single bend and 60° continuous hends, was designed to quantitatively describe 3-D turhulenee mechanism of circulating notfully-developed flow in open channels with hends. The 3-D fluctuating veloeities of turbulent flow were measured and analyzed with a 3 D acoustic-Doppler velocimeter. Formula for 3 D turbulent intensity was derived using the dimension analysis approaeh. Expressions of vertical turbulent intensity distributions were obtained with the multivariant-rcgression theo ry, whieh agree with experiment data. Distrihutions of turbulent intensity and turbulent stress were characterized, and their relationships were concluded. In the bend-turbulent flow core region, longitudinal and lateral turbulent-intensity distri hutions are coincident with linear distribution, hut in nearwall region are coincident with the Gamma distribution. Verotical turbulent intensity distributions are coincident with the Rayleigh distribution. Herein, it is concluded that the bend turbulence is anisotropic.

储层流动单元研究进展

从流动单元的概念入手,结合自身实践,详细介绍了目前流动单元研究中所使用的沉积学和层序地层、聚类分析、地质建模、物理实验、测井或地震等地球物理方法以及其它多种研究方法,并简要评述了这些方法的优缺点。同时分析了目前流动单元研究中存在的各种问题,在此基础上指出了流动单元研究的发展趋势。

砂质辫状河储层三维地质建模研究

河流相储层常具有较难描述的几何结构 ,这往往可归结为砂体伴随着复杂的沉积环境。在开采过程中 ,主要流动路径是通过砂岩进行的 ,在特定的井位构形下 ,砂岩的连通性和非均质性对于油气采收率至关重要。以FJC油田砂质辫状河Y9储层为实例 ,采用确定性内插与随机模拟相结合的建模方法 ,建立的地质模型揭示了河流相叠置砂岩分布连通性和传导性的一般特征。由于具有多个沉积微相分布的储层属性参数有较大差别 ,通过沉积微相的条件约束模拟 ,合理体现了微相内地质特征的相似性 ,使地质模型更符合实际。利用流动单元识别原理和方法 ,划分出表征不同存储性和渗流性的流动单元 ,从宏观角度阐明砂体内部剩余油的分布 ,反映出流动单元与剩余油的内在联系。应用表明 ,三维建模在揭示砂体空间非均质性方面具有优势 。

油藏地质模型研究进展

油藏地质模型是将油藏各种地质特征在三维空间的变化及分布定量表述出来的地质模型,是对油气藏的类型、几何形态、规模、油藏内部结构、储层参数及流体分布的高度概括。它由圈闭结构模型、储层地质模型和流体分布模型3个部分组成,其核心是储层地质模型。对油藏地质模型的研究,国外从20世纪60年代初期开始,经历初步认识、快速发展和成熟3个阶段,逐渐形成了一套完整的理论方法和技术手段;国内研究起步较晚,在跟踪国外研究的同时,逐步探索并形成了适合于我国陆相储层的随机建模体系。纵观国内外研究成果,地质建模的发展趋势将是最大限度地挖掘地震资料信息,以期与测井资料的有机结合,并有机地利用随机模拟。

基于因子分析的流动单元研究

利用因子分析,从隔夹层数、砂厚、隔夹层厚、层厚、砂地比、孔隙度、渗透率、地层系数等17个参数中提取储集因子、流动因子、非均质因子、隔夹层因子、地层厚度因子、饱和度因子6个具有代表性并能反映各参数内部规律的公共因子。通过聚类分析方法和判别分析方法将821个样本分为4类,即4类流动单元,然后采用流动单元约束的随机建模,运用序贯高斯随机模拟方法来进行属性场的预测和模拟。预测结果良好,说明采用该方法可以完成对储层的精细定量描述。

陆相碎屑岩储层基本地质模式

对陆相碎屑岩储层沉积体系中各种沉积环境及相模式本质特征进行了研究，认为，在有水流作用的环境中，相同的水动力因素和作用机制是各种相模式存在的基础．建立起陆相碎屑岩储层基本地质模式，这种模式由水道相和非水道相两种基本相单元构成．这两种相单元是组成陆相碎屑岩储层沉积的骨架砂体．水道相是开发的主力油层，在强水动力条件下形成，岩性粗，垂向上表现典型正韵律，下部高水淹，中、上部低水淹，剩余油分布在层序上部；非水道相是开发的非主力油层，在弱水动力条件下形成，岩性细，垂向韵律性不明显，中、低水淹，剩余油分布在低水淹区．

三维地质建模及油藏数值模拟一体化剩余油分布规律研究

剩余油分布规律研究一直是中后期油田开发的研究重点和难点,研究方法也多种多样.针对马岭油田中一区的开发特点,采用三维地质建模和油藏数值模拟一体化技术研究思路,在构造特征研究、精细地层对比、沉积相研究和流动单元研究的基础上,建立了中一区延长组到富县组的三维立体地质模型,从而为油藏数值模拟提供了初始静态地质模型.在历史拟合的基础上通过精细油藏模拟方法进行了油藏剩余油分布模拟计算,并结合沉积相和流动单元分析了剩余油分布规律,从而为油田下步方案调整提供了挖潜方向.

流动单元的研究方法及其研究意义

提高油藏描述的精度、确定剩余油的分布、改善开发效果的关键是认识油藏的非均质性。介绍一种研究油藏非均质性的新方法———流动单元研究方法。流动单元不仅具有相同（似）的沉积特征，而且具有相同（似）的流动特征。将流动单元的研究方法分为２种，一种是岩心定性分析方法，另一种是修改的ＫｏｚｅｎｙＣａｒｍａｎ方程方法，给出了流动单元研究的步骤。介绍了流动单元在储层评价、剩余油分布与预测、油藏数值模拟、渗透率解释等方面的应用。

基于储层构型和流动单元的河流三角洲三维地质建模技术——以尕斯库勒油田为例

以三角洲沉积学理论为基础,采用"层次约束"与"模式拟合"的思路,对尕斯库勒油田下干柴沟组下段油藏开展了储层构型研究。利用渗流主控参数"截断"法,优选出划分流动单元类型的参数标准,开展基于构型的流动单元分析。在此基础上建立相控三维地质模型,获得储层物性空间分布特征,为预测剩余油分布提供了有利的地质指导。

精细油藏描述研究进展

从国内外研究现状人手,详细介绍了目前精细油藏描述研究的现状。国外研究的重点已由常规的野外露头分析、实验分析、数值模拟向地震反演储层预测、微地震方法储层表征、人工智能神经网络等新技术新方法转变,研究对象也由传统的砂岩和碳酸盐岩向致密油致密气储层转变。研究方法中综合性、地震技术以及计算机技术进一步加强。天然裂缝储层表征等专项研究进步很大。国内已经从最初的简单模仿学习国外油藏描述研究方法,发展形成了一整套较为成熟的精细油藏描述程序和方法,研究内容也比较全面完善,几乎涵盖了储层地质研究的各个方面。结合研究自身实践,将精细油藏描述研究总结为高分辨率层系地层学指导下的地层精细划分与对比、沉积成因分析基础上的储层构型分析、储层定量分类评价、储层流动单元研究和储层地质建模研究等5个关键问题。在此基础上分析了精细油藏描述研究存在的问题,认为目前精细油藏描述定量研究还需要加强,各种地震和测井等新技术手段有待加强,实验技术、多点地质统计学建模等方面还需发展完善。储层在开发过程中的变化研究等还未引起足够的重视。最后针对上述问题指出了该项研究8个方面的发展趋势。