Pediococcus Acidilactici Inhibit Biofilm Formation of Food-Borne Pathogens on Abiotic Surfaces

In this study, we aimed to examine the inhibitory effect of PA003, a Pediococcus acidilactici that produces lactic acid and antimicrobial peptides pediocin, on pathogenic biofilm formation on abiotic surfaces. PA003 and pathogens (Escherichia coli, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes) were used to evaluate auto-aggregation, hydrophobicity, biofilm formation and biofilm formation inhibition on stainless steel, polyvinyl chloride and glass slides in terms of exclusion, displacement and competition. The results showed the highest auto-aggregation abilities were observed for one of the E. coli strains EAggEC (E58595) and the highest hydrophobic strain was observed with EPEC (E2348/69) (51.9%). The numbers of biofilm cells of E. coli, S. Typhimurium, S. aureus and L. monocytogenes on stainless steel, polyvinyl chloride and glass slide coupons were effectively reduced by approximately 4 log CFU/coupon. These results demonstrate that lactic acid bacteria can be used as an alternative to effectively control the formation of biofilms by food-borne pathogens. © 2016, Tianjin University and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.

Prevalence of Enteric Pathogens Associated with Infections among Table Egg Consumers in Some Primary Health Establishments in the Center Region of Cameroon

Method: In Cameroon limited data are available regarding the prevalence of enteric bacteria associated with table egg consuming infections. As such, a situational-based study was performed in patients with complains of stomach disorders after egg consumption. Data related to sociodemographic characteristics and other factors were collected using a structured based questionnaire. Stool culture of utmost importance in stomach disorders patients and serum were collected for typhoid serological test. Results: A total of 207 participants took part in the survey, Results indicated nontyphoidal Salmonella infections were highest in the 3 areas of study with Mfoundi (73.44%) having the highest level of infection compared to other bacterial infection. other enteric bacteria associated to this infection were E. coli serotype 157, Aeromonas, Citrobacter freundii, Enterobacter cloaca and typhi salmonella. Meanwhile salmonelosis caused by typhic salmonella had highest prevalence in the Lekie Division (13.11%) as a result of poor hygienic practices associated with the conservation and preparation of eggs, Stool culture was observed to detect more positive cases in the diagnosis of typhoid fever than Widal test, but with no statistically significant (p > 0.05) difference between the stool culture and Widal test in the 3 areas of study. Conclusion: this study revealed that egg consumers are pruned to enteric bacterial and salmonella infections depending on how and where egg is consumed.

Updated roles of the gut microbiota in exploring shrimp etiology, polymicrobial pathogens, and disease incidence

Litopenaeus vannamei is the most extensively cultured shrimp species globally,recognized for its scale,production,and economic value.However,its aquaculture is plagued by frequent disease outbreaks,resulting in rapid and massive mortality.etiological research often lags behind the emergence of new diseases,leaving the causal agents of some shrimp diseases unidentified and leading to nomenclature based on symptomatic presentations,especially in cases involving co-and polymicrobial pathogens.Comprehensive data on shrimp disease statuses remain limited.In this review,we summarize current knowledge on shrimp diseases and their effects on the gut microbiome.Furthermore,we also propose a workflow integrating primary colonizers,“driver”taxa in gut networks from healthy to diseased states,disease-discriminatory taxa,and virulence genes to identify potential polymicrobial pathogens.We examine both abiotic and biotic factors(e.g.,external and internal sources and specific-disease effects)that influence shrimp gut microbiota,with an emphasis on the“holobiome”concept and common features of gut microbiota response to diverse diseases.After excluding the effects of confounding factors,we provide a diagnosis model for quantitatively predicting shrimp disease incidence using disease common-discriminatory taxa,irrespective of the causal agents.Due to the conservation of functional genes used in designing specific primers,we propose a practical strategy applying qPCR-assayed abundances of disease common-discriminatory functional genes.This review updates the roles of the gut microbiota in exploring shrimp etiology,polymicrobial pathogens,and disease incidence,offering a refined perspective for advancing shrimp aquaculture health management.

Research Progress on Pathogens of Main Diseases of Dictyophora rubrovalvata and Their Occurrence

Dictyophora rubrovalvata is an edible fungus with rich nutritional value.It contains various nutrients and bioactive components,and has immunomodulation,anti-tumor,anti-oxidation,anti-fatigue,anti-aging,anti-inflammation and alcoholic hepatitis-protection effects.With the continuous expansion of planting area of Dictyophora,the disease problem has become a major problem affecting the development of Dictyophora industry.In this paper,the pathogens,harmful symptoms and causes of main diseases in Dictyophora were summarized,so as to provide reference for comprehensive control of Dictyophora diseases and promote the high-quality development of Dictyophora industry.

A Natural Catalytic Converter® for Continuously Inactivating Air and Surface Pathogens with More Effect than Ventilation and Filtration

Study Objective: The purpose of the study is to present independent laboratory testing for a novel technology in air and on surfaces. Since 2020, public health goals have focused on improving indoor air quality. This includes protection from airborne pathogens, such as tuberculosis, RSV, SARS-CoV-2, common cold or influenza viruses, measles, and others. Engineering controls are highly effective at reducing hazardous pathogens found in indoor air and from recontamination of surfaces. This occurs from a continuous cycle of settling of small, sustained airborne pathogens, which may become dehumidified, becoming airborne again, carried by room air currents around indoor spaces, then repeating the cycle. Methods: The novel technology utilizes a catalytic process to produce safe levels of hydrogen peroxide gas that are effective in reducing pathogens in the air and on surfaces. Air testing was performed with the MS2 bacteriophage, the test organism for ASHRAE standard 241, and methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Surface testing was performed with SARS-COV-2 (Coronavirus COVID-19) and H1N1 (Influenza). Typical ventilation and filtration does not effectively remove disbursed pathogens from the entire facility, due to inconsistent air circulation and surface deposits of pathogens. Results: MS2 was reduced by 99.9%;MRSA was reduced by 99.9%;SARS-CoV-2 was reduced by 99.9%;H1N1 was reduced by 99.9%. Conclusion: This novel catalytic converter reduces a variety of pathogens in the air (99%) and on surfaces (99%), by actively disinfecting with the introduction of gaseous hydrogen peroxide. This active disinfection provides a strong solution for protecting the entire facility and its occupants.

Animals as sources of food-borne pathogens: A review

Food-producing animals are the major reservoirs for many foodborne pathogens such as Campylobacter species, non-Typhi serotypes of Salmonella enterica, Shiga toxin-producing strains of Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocytogenes. The zoonotic potential of foodborne pathogens and their ability to produce toxins causing diseases or even death are sufficient to recognize the seriousness of the situation. This manuscript reviews the evidence that links animals as vehicles of the foodborne pathogens Salmonella,Campylobacter, Shiga toxigenic E. coli, and L. monocytogenes, their impact, and their current status. We conclude that these pathogenic bacteria will continue causing outbreaks and deaths throughout the world, because no effective interventions have eliminated them from animals and food.

Quantum dot biosensor combined with antibody and aptamer for tracing food-borne pathogens

Due to the increasing number of food-borne diseases,more attention is being paid to food safety.Food-borne pathogens are the main cause of food-borne diseases,which seriously endanger human health,so it is necessary to detect and control them.Traditional detection methods cannot meet the requirements of rapid detection of food due to many shortcomings,such as being time-consuming,laborious or requiring expensive instrumentation.Quantum dots have become a promising nanotechnology in pathogens tracking and detection because of their excellent optical properties.New biosensor detection methods based on quantum dots are have been gradually developed due to their high sensitivity and high specificity.In this review,we summarize the different characteristics of quantum dots synthesized by carbon,heavy metals and composite materials firstly.Then,attention is paid to the principles,advantages and limitations of the quantum dots biosensor with antibodies and aptamers as recognition elements for recognition and capture of food-borne pathogens.Finally,the great potential of quantum dots in pathogen detection is summarized.

Antifungal alkaloids from Mahonia fortunei against pathogens of postharvest fruit

Postharvest pathogens can affect a wide range of fresh fruit and vegetables,including grapes,resulting in significant profit loss.Isoquinoline alkaloids of Mahonia fortunei,a Chinese herbal medicine,have been used to treat infectious microbes,which might be effective against postharvest pathogens.The phytochemical and bioactive investigation of this plant led to the isolation of 18 alkaloids,of which 9 compounds inhibited the growth of Botrytis cinerea and 4 compounds against Penicillium italicum.The antifungal alkaloids could change the mycelium morphology,the total lipid content,and leak the cell contents of B.cinerea.Furthermore,the two most potent antifungal alkaloids,berber-ine(13)completely inhibited effect on gray mold of table grape at 512 mg L^(−1),while jatrorrhizine(18)exhibited an inhibition rate>90%on grape rot at the same concentration,with lower cytotoxicity and residue than chlorothalonil,which suggested that ingredients of M.fortunei might be a low-toxicity,low-residue,eco-friendly botanical fungicide against postharvest pathogens.

Review on microbial metabolomics of probiotics and pathogens:Methodologies and applications

In recent years,microbial metabolomics,a new field that has attracted wide attention,provides a map of metabolic pathways and clarifies the interaction mechanism between microorganisms and hosts.Many microorganisms are found in the human intestine,oral cavity,vagina,etc.Probiotics could maintain the good health of the host,while pathogens and an imbalance of bacterial flora lead to a series of diseases of the body and mind.Metabolomics is a science for qualitative and quantitative analysis of all metabolites in an organism or biological system,which could provide key information to understand the related metabolic pathways and associated changes.This approach analyzes the final products of cellular regulatory processes,the level of which can be regarded as the ultimate response of the biological system to genetic or environmental changes.Microbial metabolomics has been widely used in different research fields,such as microbial phenotypic classification,mutant screening,metabolic pathways,microbial metabolic engineering,fermentation engineering monitoring and optimization,microbial environmental pollution,and so on.However,there are only a few reviews on microbial metabolomics of probiotics and pathogens.This review summarizes the main methodologies,including sample preparation,identification of metabolites,data processing,and analysis.Recent applications in microbial metabolomics of probiotics and pathogens are also described.This paper first summarized the research progress and application of microbial metabolomics from two aspects:probiotics and pathogenic bacteria.Probiotics and pathogenic bacteria do not exist independently most of the time;hence,these were reviewed in the research field of coexistence of probiotics and pathogenic bacteria,which was subdivided into important microbial research fields closely related to human health,including the human gut,oral cavity,food,and nutrition-related microorganisms.Then,the main problems and trends associated with microbial metabolomics are discussed.

Bio-control of Some Food-Borne Pathogenic Bacteria by Bacteriophage

In recent years, researchers tended to bring new alternative to biological protective systems used in conservation of food and production of safe food. Use of bacteriophage against to pathogen bacteria in food was the most hopeful system in these methods about bio-control. Controls of bacteriophage for each pathogen species and subspecies and determination of phage-host originality are important because efficient bio-control was achieved. Researches concentrated on some food-borne pathogen bacteria such as E. coli O157：H7, Campylobacter, Salmonella and Listeria. In a consequence of these studies made as in vitro and in vivo, first commercial production of phage which will be used in foods was made in Netherlands. Also, it has been informed that use of phage is cost-efficient alternative as compared with other preservatives. This review, discussed application of bacteriophages as bio-control agents in food and advantages and disadvantages about uses of bacteriophages by taking into account antimicrobial characteristics of them.

Control of highly pathogenic avian influenza through vaccination

The stamping-out strategy has been used to control highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses in many countries,driven by the belief that vaccination would not be successful against such viruses and fears that avian influenza virus in vaccinated birds would evolve more rapidly and pose a greater risk to humans.In this review,we summarize the successes in controlling highly pathogenic avian influenza in China and make suggestions regarding the requirements for vaccine selection and effectiveness.In addition,we present evidence that vaccination of poultry not only eliminates human infection with avian influenza virus,but also significantly reduces and abolishes some harmful characteristics of avian influenza virus.

The Role of Biosynthesized Metallic and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles in Combating Anti-Microbial Drug Resilient Pathogens

Because of their high efficiency, antibiotics have long been the primary treatment for infections, but the rise of drug-resistant pathogens has become a therapeutic concern. Nanoparticles, as novel biomaterials, are currently gaining global attention to combat them. Drug-resistant diseases may need the use of nanoparticles as a viable therapeutic option. By altering target locations and enzymes, decreasing cell permeability, inactivating enzymes, and increasing efflux by overexpressing efflux pumps, they can bypass conventional resistance mechanisms. Therefore, understanding how metal and metal oxide nanoparticles affect microorganisms that are resistant to antimicrobial drugs is the main objective of this review. Accordingly, the uses of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles in the fight against drug-resistant diseases appear promising. However, their mechanism of action, dose, and possible long-term effects require special attention and future research. Furthermore, repeated use of silver nanoparticles may cause gram-negative microorganisms to acquire resistance, necessitating additional study.

Investigation of the epidemiology,pathogenicity and immunogenicity of Bordetella bronchiseptica isolated from cats and dogs in China from 2021 to 2023

Bordetella bronchiseptica(Bb)is recognized as a leading cause of respiratory diseases in dogs and cats.However,epidemiological data on Bb in dogs and cats in China are still limited,and there is no commercially available vaccine.Live vaccines containing Bb that are widely used abroad are generally efective but can establish latency and potentially reactivate to cause illness in some immunodefcient vaccinated recipients,raising safety concerns.In this study,34 canine-derived and two feline-derived Bb strains were isolated from 1809 canine and 113 feline nasopharyngeal swab samples collected from eight provinces in China from 2021 to 2023.The PCR results showed that the percentage of positive Bb was 22.94%(441/1922),and more than 90%of the Bb isolates had four virulence factor-encoding genes(VFGs),namely,fhaB,prn,betA and dnt.All the isolated strains displayed a multidrug-resistant phenotype.The virulence of 10 Bb strains isolated from dogs with respiratory symptoms was tested in mice,and we found that eight isolates were highly virulent.Furthermore,the eight Bb isolates with high virulence were inactivated and intramuscularly injected into mice,and three Bb strains(WH1218,WH1203 and WH1224)with the best protective efcacy were selected.Dogs immunized with these three strains exhibited strong protection against challenge with the Bb feld strain WH1218.Ultimately,the WH1218 strain with the greatest protection in dogs was selected as the vaccine candidate.Dogs and cats that received a vaccine containing 109 CFU of the inactivated WH1218 strain showed complete protection against challenge with the Bb feld strain WH1218.This study revealed that Bb is an important pathogen that causes respiratory diseases in domestic dogs and cats in China,and all the isolates exhibited multidrug resistance.The present work contributes to the current understanding of the prevalence,antimicrobial resistance,and virulence genes of Bb in domestic dogs and cats.Additionally,our results suggest that the WH1218 strain is a promising candidate safe and efcacious inactivated Bb vaccine.

Characteristics of cross transmission of gut fungal pathogens between wintering Hooded Cranes and sympatric Domestic Geese

Migratory birds travel long distance and link various pathogens.Due to habitat degradation,wintering waterfowls forage together with poultry,increasing the risk of pathogen transmission between hosts.We investigated the fungal communities between wintering Hooded Cranes and Domestic Geese by high-throughput sequencing,and inferred the potential gut pathogens for both hosts at different wintering stages.The fungal community compositions were significantly different between seasons and between the hosts.The negative correlation was found between fungal diversity and pathogenic diversity,with higher fungal diversity and less pathogenic diversity in early stage and less fungal diversity and higher pathogenic diversity in late stage for both hosts.The dissimilarity of pathogenic community compositions decreased from early to late stage,with the quantity of overlapping potential pathogenic OTUs increasing along wintering periods between the two hosts,demonstrating the existence of pathogen cross transmission between the two hosts.Furthermore,the transmission pathway of avian pathogens was mainly from Hooded Cranes to Domestic Geese while the transmission direction of human pathogens was primarily from Domestic Geese to wild cranes.Based on above results,we argued that pathogen cross transmission and underlying outbreak risk of disease should be closely monitored in migratory birds and domestic poultry.

Prevalence of Antimicrobial Resistance of ESKAPE Pathogens before and during Pandemic COVID-19 Pandemic in a University Affiliated Hospital in Tangerang, Indonesia

Introduction: Antimicrobial resistance is the most important health problems currently. Antibiotic prophylaxis to prevent bacterial co-infections in hospitalized COVID-19 patients, and lack of surveillance were associated with antimicrobial resistance. ESKAPE pathogens consisting of E. faecium, S. aureus, K. pneumoniae, A. baumanii, P. aeruginosa and Enterobacter spp. are associated with healthcare-associated infections. Patients and Methods: This descriptive, retrospective, longitudinal study aims to describe the resistance rates of bloodstream infection due to ESKAPE pathogens from patients admitted in Siloam Hospital Karawaci, before and during COVID-19 pandemic (January 1st, 2019 until December 31st, 2022). Out of 296 ESKAPE pathogens collected from blood samples, S. aureus was the most frequent species, followed by K. pneumoniae, A. baumannii, P. aeruginosa, Enterobacter spp., and E. faecium. Results: Resistance rates of E. faecium were alarmingly high from 2019 until 2021, but in 2022 no sample was found. Resistance rates of S. aureus and MRSA decreased from 2019 until 2021 and then increased again in 2022 while for K. pneumoniae it peaked in 2020 and reached the lowest in 2022. Resistance pattern of A. baumanii was not favorable from 2019 until 2021, but decreased dramatically in 2022. Resistance pattern of P. aeruginosa was quite variable in 2021 and 2022 while for Enterobacter spp. it was variable in 2020 to 2022. Conclusion: The COVID-19 pandemic affected the antimicrobial resistance pattern of ESKAPE pathogens in Banten province, Indonesia. Resistance rates increased as the pandemic peaked in 2020 to 2021, and decreased as the pandemic resolves in 2022.

Modern approaches for detection of volatile organic compounds in metabolic studies focusing on pathogenic bacteria:Current state of the art

Pathogenic microorganisms produce numerous metabolites,including volatile organic compounds(VOCs).Monitoring these metabolites in biological matrices(e.g.,urine,blood,or breath)can reveal the presence of specific microorganisms,enabling the early diagnosis of infections and the timely implementation of tar-geted therapy.However,complex matrices only contain trace levels of VOCs,and their constituent com-ponents can hinder determination of these compounds.Therefore,modern analytical techniques enabling the non-invasive identification and precise quantification of microbial VOCs are needed.In this paper,we discuss bacterial VOC analysis under in vitro conditions,in animal models and disease diagnosis in humans,including techniques for offline and online analysis in clinical settings.We also consider the advantages and limitations of novel microextraction techniques used to prepare biological samples for VOC analysis,in addition to reviewing current clinical studies on bacterial volatilomes that address inter-species in-teractions,the kinetics of VOC metabolism,and species-and drug-resistance specificity.

Antiseptic Efficacy of A Soap Made from Biosurfactants Isolated from Bacillus and Lactobacillus against Pathogenic Bacteria

The aim of our study was to use a biosurfactant produced by Bacillus and Lactobacillus isolates as an antiseptic in the formulation of local soap. A total of 60 isolates were characterized by microbiological techniques (30 Bacillus and 30 Lactobacillus) and the ability to produce biosurfactants was demonstrated by a hydrocarbon emulsification index (E24). The emulsification indexes (E24) varied from 9% to 100% for Bacillus and from 33% to 100% for Lactobacillus as well. The antagonistic assay showed that biosurfactants were able to inhibit the formation of biofilms and growth of pathogens such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Salmonella typhirium, Shigella boydii and Proteus mirabilis. The biosurfactant consortium (BioC) from Bacillus consortium and from Lactobacillus was able to inhibit biofilm formation and the pathogens growth. The BioC was stable to alkaline pH and the temperatures stability of Biosurfactant was ranging from 50°C to 90°C. The soap was made by the cold saponification process using one biosurfactant consortium formulated. This soap has a pH of 10 and showed good cleaning power and good foam stability. Similarly, the soap showed good antiseptic power and disinfection power against all pathogens tested. Handwashing is critical to preventing disease transmission. The persistence of pathogens in waste water was evaluated. The BioS produced showed good disinfection power against all pathogens tested. The valor of reduction on the hands and in the waste water was significantly more than compared to the control soaps used. This soap could be used in the prevention, fighting, and treatment of bacterial and viral infections.

The virulence regulator AbsR in avian pathogenic Escherichia coli has pleiotropic effects on bacterial physiology

Avian pathogenic Escherichia coli(APEC)belonging to extraintestinal pathogenic E.coli(ExPEC)can cause severe infections in extraintestinal tissues in birds and humans,such as the lungs and blood.MprA(microcin production regulation,locus A,herein renamed AbsR,a blood survival regulator),a member of the MarR(multiple antibiotic resistance regulator)transcriptional regulator family,governs the expression of capsule biosynthetic genes in human ExPEC and represents a promising druggable target for antimicrobials.However,a deep understanding of the AbsR regulatory mechanism as well as its regulon is lacking.In this study,we present a systems-level analysis of the APEC AbsR regulon using ChIP-Seq(chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing)and RNA-Seq(RNA sequencing)methods.We found that AbsR directly regulates 99 genes and indirectly regulates 667 genes.Furthermore,we showed that:1)AbsR contributes to antiphagocytotic effects by macrophages and virulence in a mouse model for systemic infection by directly activating the capsular gene cluster;2)AbsR positively impacts biofilm formation via direct regulation of the T2SS(type II secretion system)but plays a marginal role in virulence;and 3)AbsR directly upregulates the acid tolerance signaling system EvgAS to withstand acid stress but is dispensable in ExPEC virulence.Finally,our data indicate that the role of AbsR in virulence gene regulation is relatively conserved in ExPEC strains.Altogether,this study provides a comprehensive analysis of the AbsR regulon and regulatory mechanism,and our data suggest that AbsR likely influences virulence primarily through the control of capsule production.Interestingly,we found that AbsR severely represses the expression of the type I-F CRISPR(clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)-Cas(CRISPR associated)systems,which could have implications in CRISPR biology and application.

SsdchA is a novel secretory cellobiohydrolase driving pathogenicity in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

The necrotrophic fungus, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, employs an array of cell wall-degrading enzymes(CWDEs), including cellulase, to dismantle host cell walls. However, the molecular mechanisms through which S. sclerotiorum degrades cellulose remain elusive. Here, we unveil a novel secretory cellobiohydrolase, SsdchA, characterized by a signal peptide and a Glyco_hydro_7(GH7) domain. SsdchA exhibits a robust expression of during early infection stages. Interestingly, colony morphology and growth rates remain unaffected across the wild-type, SsdchA deletion strains and SsdchA overexpression strains on potato dextrose agar(PDA) medium. Nevertheless, the pathogenicity and cellobiohydrolase activity decreased in the SsdchA deletion strains, but enhanced in the SsdchA overexpression strains. Moreover,the heterologous expression of SsdchA in Arabidopsis thaliana leads to reduced cellulose content and heightened susceptibility to S. sclerotiorum. Collectively, our data underscore the pivotal role of the novel cellobiohydrolase SsdchA in the pathogenicity of S. sclerotiorum.

Disruption of non-classically secreted protein(MoMtp)compromised conidiation,stress homeostasis,and pathogenesis of Magnaporthe oryzae

Blast disease,caused by the hemibiotrophic ascomycete fungus,Magnaporthe oryzae,is a significant threat to sustainable rice production worldwide.Studies have shown that the blast fungus secretes vast arrays of functionally diverse proteins into the host cell for a successful disease progression.However,the final destinations of these effector proteins inside the host cell and their role in advancing fungal pathogenesis remain a mystery.Here,we reported that a putative mitochondrial targeting non-classically secreted protein(MoMtp)positively regulates conidiogenesis and appressorium maturation in M.oryzae.Moreover,MoM TP gene deletion mutant strains triggered a hypersensitive response when inoculated on rice leaves displaying that MoMtp is essential for the virulence of M.oryzae.In addition,cell wall and oxidative stress results indicated that MoMtp is likely involved in the maintenance of the structural integrity of the fungus cell.Our study also demonstrates an upregulation in the expression pattern of the MoMTP gene at all stages of infection,indicating its possible regulatory role in host invasion and the infectious development of M.oryzae.Furthermore,Agrobacterium infiltration and sheath inoculation confirmed that MoMtpGFP protein is predominantly localized in the host mitochondria of tobacco leaf and rice cells.Taken together,we conclude that MoMtp protein likely promotes the normal conidiation and pathogenesis of M.oryzae and might have a role in disturbing the proper functioning of the host mitochondria during pathogen invasion.