The Forest Pattern and Its Variation Characteristics in Economic Zone on the Western Coast of the Taiwan Straits

Taking Economic Zone on the Western Coast of the Taiwan Straits as the study area,we use GIS,remote sensing,mathematical statistics and other methods,to analyze the forest pattern and its variation characteristics in Economic Zone on the Western Coast of the Taiwan Straits during the period 1992-2008;use canonical correspondence analysis(CCA)to examine the effects of environmental factors on changes in forest pattern.The results show that the forest resources are rich in Economic Zone on the Western Coast of the Taiwan Straits,accounting for 61.40% of the total area,but the geographical distribution is very uneven,with obvious regional and elevation gradient difference;since1992,the forest has been dwindling in Economic Zone on the Western Coast of the Taiwan Straits,from 89 300 km2 in 1992 to 88 300 km2 in 2008;in terms of changes in region and elevation gradient,there is obvious difference in the forest,and the central and western forest of Wuyi Mountain tends to decline obviously;the main environmental factors influencing changes in forest pattern in Economic Zone on the Western Coast of the Taiwan Straits include temperature,sunshine hours,GDP per capita and precipitation;evaporation,evaporation and population density have weak effects on changes in forest pattern.

A method for determining the spatial pattern of forest trees based on the uniformity theory

The spatial pattern of trees is an important feature of forests,and different spatial patterns of trees exhibit different ecological stability.Research has confirmed that natural forests with random patterns have higher biodiversity and stronger resistance to unstable factors such as pests and diseases.Even if they are disturbed or destroyed by unstable factors such as pests and diseases,they can still recover and rescue themselves;while artificial forests with uniform and clustered patterns have lower biodiversity and are susceptible to unstable factors such as pests and diseases.And once pests and diseases occur,it’s more difficult for them to recover.In order to promote the healthy and stable develop-ment of the forestry industry and protect the diversity of the biological environment,it is necessary to protect the random pattern of natural forests from being destroyed in the process of forest management,while effectively transforming the spatial pattern of artificial forests into a random pattern.Therefore,in order to ensure the convenient and accurate determination of the type of forest spatial pattern,research on methods for determining forest spatial pattern has become particularly important.Based on the theory of uniformity,this study proposes definitions and related theories of included exclusive sphere,included exclusive body,included random pattern,and included uniformity.Under the guidance of the definition of inclusion uniformity and related theories,and by using mathematical method,it is proved that the uniformity of inclusion(CL)is asymptotically subject to the Eq.18,Therefore,the relationship between the included uniformity(CL)and the number of trees in the sample plot was established,and the corresponding relationship formula was obtained,and then the determination of the spatial pattern type of trees was completed by using the corresponding relationship formula.Through rigorous reasoning and case verification,the determination method of forest spatial pattern is effective.

Application of an expert knowledge system in the study of forest spatial patterns

For the sake of exploring how the pattern of Chinese pine （Pinus massoniana Lamb） community changed after the invasion of the pine wood nematode （Bursaphelenchus xylophilus （Steiner ＆ Buhrer） Niclde） in Zhoushan, Zhejiang Province, we established a test area in the local Chinese pine community. Landsat5 TM images from 1991 and 2006 were integrated with auxiliary data from field investigation and spectral data as additional sources of information. A method of expert knowledge classifier was applied to establish the expert knowledge dataset of the main vegetation cover types from which we obtained a forest type distribution map. The spatial patterns and stability of the forest, before and after the invasion of the pine wood nematode, were analyzed in terms of community patterns. The results indicated that the predominant coniferous forest type changed to a mixed forest. As a result, the forest structure became complex and the interaction between coniferous forest patches became weakened over the period from 1991 to 2006. Therefore, the resistance of the forest eco-system to plant diseases and insect pests and the stability of forest eco-system enhanced.

Forest landscape patterns dynamics of Yihe-Luohe river basin

Based on the information from forest resources distribution maps of Luoning County of 1983 and 1999, six indices were used to analyze spatial patterns and dynamics of forest landscapes of the typical region in the middle of the Yihe-Luohe river basin. These indices include patch number, mean patch area, fragment index, patch extension index, etc. The results showed that: (1) There was a rapid increase in the number of patch and total area from 1983 to 1999 in the study area. The fragment degree became very high. (2) The area of all the forest patch types had witnessed great changes. The fractal degree of each forest patch type became big from 1983 to 1999. The mean extension index of Robinia pseudoacacia forest, non-forest, shrub forest, sparse forest, and Quercus species forest increased rapidly, but that of economic forest became zero. The fractal dimension each showed that forest coverage has been promoted. (3) The changes of landscape patterns were different in different geomorphic regions. From 1983 to 1999 the vegetation cover area, the gross number and the density of patch, diversity and evenness of landscape were all reduced greatly in gullies and ravines, but the maximum area and the mean area of patch types were increased. In hilly region, both the forest cover area and the number of patch increased from 1983 to 1999, but the mean area of patch was reduced greatly. In mountain region, even though the area under forest canopy reduced from 1983 to 1999, the patch number was increased greatly, the mean area of all patch types was reduced, the extension index, diversity index and evenness index of landscape were all increased. Furthermore, because of different types of land use, human activity and terrain, the vegetation changes on northern and southern mountain slopes were different. According to these analyses, the main driving forces, such as the policies of management, market economy, influence of human activities etc. are brought out.

Forest phenological patterns of Northeast China inferred from MODIS data

The role of remote sensing in phenological studies is increasingly regarded as a key to understand large area seasonal phenomena. This paper describes the application of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) time series data for forest phenological patterns. The forest phenological phase of Northeast China (NE China) and its spatial characteristics were inferred using 1-km 10-day MODIS normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) datasets of 2002. The threshold-based method was used to estimate three key forest phenological variables, which are the start of growing season (SOS), the end of growing season (EOS) and growing season length (GSL). Then the spatial patterns of forest phenological variables of NE China were mapped and analyzed. The derived phenological variables were validated by the field observed data from published papers in the same study area. Results indicate that forest phenological phase from MODIS data is comparable with the observed data. As the derived forest phenological pattern is related to forest type distribution, it is helpful to discriminate between forest types.

Interplanting Patterns of Cash Crops under Forest

At the same time of tending forests,it is necessary to explore the under-forest economic development mode,bring into play production function of economic plants,establish cultivation mode of edible fungus,wild vegetables and medicinal plants under forest,to obtain certain economic benefit in short period. This paper made a preliminary study on significance and existing problems of the under-forest economy,and came up with several interplanting patterns,in the hope of providing a comprehensive operation and cultivation approach for developing the under-forest economy.

The influence of selective cutting of mixed Korean pine(Pinus koraiensis Sieb.et Zucc.) and broad-leaf forest on rare species distribution patterns and spatial correlation in Northeast China

This study aimed to demonstrate change in spatial correlation between Korean pine （Pinus koraiensis Sieb. et Zucc.） and three rare species, and change in spatial distribution of four species in response to a range of selective cutting intensities. We sampled three plots of mixed Korean pine and broad-leaf forest in Lushuihe Forestry Bureau of Jilin province, China. Plot 1, a control, was unlogged Korean pine broad-leaf forest. In plots 2 and 3, Korean pine was selectively cut at 15 and 30 % intensity, respectively, in the 1970s. Other species were rarely cut. We used point-pattern analysis to research the spatial distributions of four tree species and quantify spatial correlations between Korean pine and the other three species, Amur linden （Tilia amurensis Rupr.）, Manchurian ash （Fraxinus mandshurica Rupr.）, and Mongolian oak （Quercus mongolica Fisch.） in all three plots. The results of the study show that selective cutting at 15 % intensity did not significantly change either the species spatial patterns or the spatial correlation between Korean pine and broadleaf species. Selective cutting at 30 % intensity slightly affected the growth of Korean pine and valuable species in forest communities, and the effect was considered nondestructive and recoverable.

Spatial patterns and storage composition of woody debris in a natural secondary forest dominated by Pinus tabulaeformis on Loess Plateau, China

Woody debris(WD) is an important par of natural Pinus tabulaeformis mixed stands, and i affects the forest ecosystem stability and developmen The WD spatial patterns are especially importan structural characteristics that can provide insights into forest dynamics. In this paper, the WD storage WD spatial patterns and WD associations among the main species were examined in the natural secondary forest on Loess Plateau in northwest China. Data were collected in a 1 ha(100 m × 100 m) permanent plot and all the trees with a diameter at breast height o more than 3 cm were measured and stem-mapped Ripley's K functions from the spatial-point-pattern analysis method were used to analyze the spatia distribution and associations. The results showed tha(1) The total storage of WD was 10.73 t/ha, fallen wood was the main source of WD, and the majority diameters were greater than 20 cm, and in intermediate levels of decay;(2) The overall spatia pattern was closely related to the spatial scale, which exhibited an aggregated pattern on a small scale, and a random pattern on a large scale. The spatia patterns of coarse woody debris also gradually transitioned from an aggregated pattern in fine scales to a random pattern in broader spatial scales, which matched the overall spatial pattern. The spatial intensity was gradually decreased with the increasing diameters, and increased with the decomposition classes;(3) The WD of Pinus tabulaeformis species was negatively associated with Betula platyphylla and Populus davidiana on a small scale but positively associated with these species on a large scale. The spatial pattern and interspecies relations were the results of long-term interactions between the natural secondary forest community and the surrounding natural environment. These findings would provide a scientific basis for the sustainable management and protection of natural secondary forest ecosystems on Loess Plateau.

Under-forest Breeding Pattern and the Practice Form

Through the development in recent years, China's under-forest breeding pattern can be divided into four kinds of practice form of under-forest breeding pattern (the pattern of breeding driven by leading enterprises; the pattern of breeding driven by intermediary economic organizations; the pattern of breeding driven by the professional wholesale market; the pattern of breeding driven by the modern animal husbandry demonstration areas), according to difference in the main body participating in signing the operation contract in breeding pattern. In the production practice of under-forest breeding pattern, the most widely used and successful pattern is the pattern of breeding driven by leading enterprises and its derivative forms.

Spatial pattern and compositive structure of forests in Guizhou

Remote-sensing and field data of Guizhou forest resources in 2000 are processed using ArcGIS, with the production of forest resource distribution map, forest age class structure map, and forest canopy distribution map. Analysis of these data shows that: (1) though there are multiple types of forest resources, forest coverage is low (only 25.27%, excluding sparse woodland, shrub and underage-forest); (2) the geographical distribution of forests is quite uneven, mainly in the southeast of the province and in Zunyi prefecture; (3) the zonal evergreen broad-leaved forests have been seriously destroyed, with striking secondary features, i.e., coniferous forest and shrubbery account for the greatest proportion of Guizhou forests; (4) the timber-forest is much larger in area than shelter-forest and economic forest; (5) young-and-middle aged forests are more widely distributed than near-and-over matured forest; and (6) the forest of Guizhou is not enough to effectively protect the environment of karst mountain areas of the province.

Spatial Pattern Characteristics and Influencing Factors of National Forest Cities in China

In view of the deficiency of national forest cities in the exploration of spatial pattern and influencing factors,this paper adopted the methods of nearest neighbor analysis,kernel density analysis and unbalanced index calculation to analyze the spatial agglomeration pattern and spatial differentiation pattern of national forest cities.The factors affecting the selection and distribution of national forest cities were investigated by using the geographic detector and GWR model.The research results show that:① National forest cities show a spatial aggregation pattern of “east and west sparse,gradient change”,whose distribution is closely related to the climatic area;② The number of national garden cities,forest coverage rate,urbanization rate and local general budget income are four factors that have significant influence on the selection and distribution of national forest cities;③ The four significant influencing factors all have different degrees of spatial non-stationarity,and their two-factor and nonlinear enhancement effects can be generated after two interactions,among which the enhancement effect is the most obvious when the local general budget income interacts with other factors.

Analysis of Landscape Patterns and the Trend of Forest Resources in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area

In this paper, first, based on landscape ecology theories, we respectively selected indexes from 4 aspects, area, edge, shape, and density, of the landscape type to describe the status of forest landscape patterns, and we established the stability index of landscape pattern (LSBI). Then, based on geo-statistical theories, we divided the forest in the reservoir area into 3990 grids of 4 km × 4 km using network technology and employing ordinary Kriging modelling to make trend surface analyses of the forest resources in the reservoir area. Finally, based on statistics principles, we used sampling theory to systematically extract 227 samples to obtain 7 periods of remote-sensing data from 1990a to 2012a. Then, we classified and extracted the forest in the sampling area using remote sensing, and we analysed each result with an Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average Model (ARIMA) time-series model. The results indicated the following: 1) the landscape structure of the reservoir area was primarily needle-leaved forest, broad-leaved forest and bush forest, and the mixed stands and bamboo stands were secondary;2) the difference of the forest landscape pattern stability in the reservoir area, in all directions, was not significant, but the southern region was slightly more stable;and 3) the stability of the forest landscape pattern in the reservoir area increased from 1990a to 2012a. It kept increasing until 2016a. This study provides a theoretical basis for the reasonable management and decisions about the forest resources in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area. Meanwhile, it also explores methods for relevant research and has practical significance.

Assessing the influence of the minimum measured diameter on forest spatial patterns and nearest neighborhood relationships

Forest structure analysis is important for understanding the properties and development of a forest community,and its outcomes can be influenced by how trees are measured in sampled plots.Although there is a general consensus on the height at which tree diameter should be measured[1.3 m:diameter at breast height(DBH)],the minimum measureddiameter(MMD)often varies in different studies.In this study,we assumed that the outcomes of forest structure analysis can be influenced by MMD and,to this end,we applied g(r)function and stand spatial structural parameters(SSSPs)to investigate how different MMDs affect forest spatial structure analysis in two pine-oak mixed forests(30 and 57 years old)in southwest China and one old-growth oak forest(>120years old)from northwest China.Our results showed that 1)MMD was closely related to the distribution patterns of forest trees.Tree distribution patterns at each observational scale(r=0-20 m)tended tobecome random as the MMD increased.The older the community,the earlier this random distribution pattern appeared.2)As the MMD increased,neighboring trees became more regularly distributed around a reference tree.In most cases,however,nearest neighbors of a reference tree were randomly distributed.3)Tree species mingling decreased with increasing diameter,but it decreased slowly in older forests.4)No correlations can be found between individual tree size differentiation and MMD.We recommend that comparisons of spatial structures between communities would be more effective if using a unified MMD criterion.

AGE STRUCTURE AND SPATIAL PATTERN OF OLD-GROWTH KOREAN PINE FOREST IN XIAOXING'ANLING MOUNTAIN

Spatial pattern of trees, basal stem increment and height were examined in a 5.0 ha mixed deciduous/ Pinus koraiensis forest from October in 1984 to May in 1987. Conclusions arc as following: 1. Analysis of the age-structure of the korcan pine forest shows that it is different from general steady-state forest type. The lack of saplings and individuals in small-diameter class clearly indicates that regeneration is not continuous. Continuous regeneration depends on thinning of the canopy to form a gap. Similar-aged korcan pine seedings grow in these gaps. 2. The horizontal structure of the korcan pine is a mosaic of more or less even-aged groups of trees. The mosaic is a result of korcan pine by regeneration strategy. The aggregations of korcan pine of different ages overlaps to form a continuous population generation. As a results, the population is maintained in steady state.

Trend surface analysis of forest landscape pattern in Guandishan forest region of Shanxi,China

Landscape pattern is a widely used concept for the demonstration of landscape characteristic features. The integral spatial distribution trend of landscape elements is interested point in the landscape ecological research, especially in those of complex secondary forest regions with confusing mosaics of land cover. Trend surface analysis which used in community and population ecological researches was introduced to reveal the landscape pattern. A reasonable and reliable approach for application of trend surface analysis was provided in detail. As key steps of the approach, uniform grid point sampling method was developed. The efforts were also concentrated at an example of Guandishan forested landscape. Some basic rules of spatial distribution of landscape elements were exclaimed. These will be benefit to the further study in the area to enhance the forest sustainable management and landscape planning.

Stand development patterns of forest cover types in the natural forests of northern Baekdudaegan in South Korea

The purpose of this study was to classify current forest cover types,and to investigate stand development patterns for natural forests in six areas in northern Baekdudaegan,South Korea.Twenty-eight independent forest communities were aggregated into eight forest cover types by species composition in the overstory of each forest community.The forest cover types were of mixed mesophytic,‘‘others’ ’ deciduous,Quercus mongolica dominant,Q.mongolica pure,Pinus densiflora–Q.mongolica,P.densiflora,Betula ermanii,and Q.mongolica–P.koraiensis.The ecological information was organized by importance value and species diversity for each forest type.Based on the correlation between species diversity index and the abundance of Q.mongolica plus P.densiflora for corresponding forest cover types,we compared the developmental process and approximate successional pathway between each cover type.The P.densiflora forest cover type changes into the P.densiflora–Q.mongolica cover type,followed by the Q.mongolica dominant cover type through continuous invasion of the oak trees.Furthermore,the Q.mongolica pure cover type would spread toward the Q.mongolica dominant cover type with a mixture of various deciduous tree species.The Q.mongolica dominant cover type progresses through the other deciduous cover types to the mixed mesophytic cover type with diversified composition and structure.On the mid to lower slopes,with loamy soils and good moisture conditions,various deciduous forest types should progress,by ecological succession,toward the mixed mesophytic cover type without any further disturbance.

常绿阔叶林壳斗科植物的空间分布格局及其影响因素

以广西壮族自治区的十万大山、花坪、岑王老山国家级自然保护区为研究区域,设置9个100 m×100 m固定样地,将每个样地划分为25个20 m×20 m的样方,再将样方划分为16个5 m×5 m的小样方;采用空间代替时间(即径级结构代替树龄结构)的方法,用胸径(D_(BH))将壳斗科(Fagaceae)树种个体划分为小树(1.0 cm≤D_(BH)<5.0 cm)、中树(5.0 cm≤D_(BH)<20.0 cm)、大树(D_(BH)≥20.0 cm)3个径级阶段;选取样地中胸径D_(BH)≥1.0 cm的所有壳斗科个体为研究对象,进行每木检尺,记录树种名称,测定胸径、树高、冠幅、枝下高等测树因子以及每棵树的位置坐标;以空间聚集程度为评价指标,以海拔、经度、纬度、年降水量、春季降水、夏季降水、年均温、年均最高温、年均最低温、1月份均温、7月份均温为影响因素,采用克鲁斯卡尔-沃利斯检验法(Kruskal-Wallis test,K-W检验)、Ripley L函数结合完全随机模型(CSR)、线性回归分析方法、皮尔逊(Pearson)相关性分析法,分析壳斗科不同径级树种的空间分布格局及各因素对其分布的影响。结果表明:①壳斗科小树、中树、整个类群的分布格局主要是聚集分布,而大树主要表现为随机分布;随径级的增加,壳斗科树种的聚集程度由大到小依次为小树、中树、整体、大树。②小树、中树、整个类群在10 m空间尺度上的聚集程度(L_(10)),与年降水、年均温、年均最高温、年均最低温、1月份均温、7月份均温均呈显著正相关(P<0.05),且小树阶段的空间聚集程度更易受气温、降水的影响;大树的聚集程度(L_(10)),与年均温、年均最高温、年均最低温、1月份均温均呈显著正相关(P<0.05);壳斗科各径级树种的聚集程度,与纬度呈显著负相关(P<0.05),与海拔呈负相关。壳斗科树种的空间分布格局主要受扩散限制和气候因素的影响,并且不同径级树种与同一气候因子间的相关性趋势一致,但程度存在差异。

Spatial Distribution Pattern of Overwintering Larvae of Dendrlimus punctatus

Based on the data of mean population density of overwintering larvae of Dendrolimus punctatus in Shatang forest farm in Guangxi Province, the spatial pattern of overwintering larva of D. punctatus were analyzed by the distribution index and regression model method. The results showed that the spatial pattern of overwintering larvae of D. punctatus assumed the aggregation pattern, the basic component of distribution was individual group. The optimal sampling number of forest survey and the sequential sampling analysis were presented, and the upper and low bound index for controlling D. punctatus were put forward to provide certain theoretical basis for integrated pest management.

Analysis of Landscape Pattern Changes and Driving Forces in Nanling National Nature Reserve

The spatial and temporal changes of landscape pattern and their driving forces in each functional zone of Nanling National Nature Reserve were analyzed based on the GIS and RS platform. The results showed that from 1988 to 2009, in respect of changes of Jandscape area, the main forest landscape accounted about 95% of the total area, of which evergreen broad-leaved forest had the largest area, accounting for more than 50% of the total area. The dominant landscape was coniferous forest. In respect of landscape fragmentation, the density index of land- scape in the whole area increased, and the degree of landscape fragmentation also increased. In the core area, the patch density decreased slightly, and the average patch area of each type of landscape increased; the degree of landscape fragmen- tation increased slightly. In the buffer area and the experimental area, the degree of landscape fragmentation increased. In terms of landscape diversity, the landscape pattern in the whole area became complex, and the diversity index of landscape in- creased and the degree of heterogeneity increased. In the core area, the diversity index of landscape increased slightly. In the buffer area, it increased significantly. In the experiment area, the diversity index reduced, and the degree of landscape het- erogeneity reduced. In the whole study area, the landscape tended to be diversified. The landscape pattern of the experimental area was consistent with that of the whole study area, and there was no obvious change in the buffer zone, while the landscape pattern in the core area developed towards the single direction.

Structure and regeneration dynamics of three forest types at different succession stages of spruce – fir mixed forest in Changbai Mountain, northeastern China

Analyzing and understanding the structure and growth dynamics of forests at different stages is helpful to promote forest succession, restoration and management. Three spots representing three succession stages of spruce-fir mixed forest(SF: polar-birch secondary forest, MF: spruce-fir mixed forest and PF: spruce-fir near primary forest) were established. Structure, growth dynamics during two growth seasons for dominant tree species, regeneration were examined, and a univariate O-ring function statistic was used to analyze the spatial patterns of main regeneration tree species. Results showed that,(1) composition of tree species, periodic annual increment(PAI) of the diameter at breast height(DBH), basal area for overstory trees and of ground diameter(DGH) for saplings, were significantly different with the succession;(2) the current species composition and regeneration dynamics of SF suggested a development towards spruce-fir mixed forests. Pioneer species like Betula platyphyllaa will gradually disappear while climax species, such as Abies nephrolepis, Pinus koraiensis, Picea koraiensis and Tilia amurensis will dominate forest stands;(3) Despite the highest volume occurring in PF, and saplings in it grew better than in the others, this forest type is unstable because of its unsustainable structure of DBH class and insufficient regeneration; and(4) MF had the most reasonable distribution of DBH class for adult trees(DBH > 5.0 cm) and DGH class for saplings(H ≥30 cm and DBH ≤5 cm), as well as an optimal volume increment. Limiting canopy opening size can lessen the physiological stress and promote the growth and competitive status of regeneration. Management implications for increasing the gaps and thus creating better growth conditions for understory saplings and facilitating forest succession were discussed.