An Improved Method for Estimating the Transition Probability Using Diameter Growth in Even-aged Forest Stands

The method of Zeng et al. (1991) employed diameter growth to estimate the transition probability of the matrix model in uneven-aged forest stands. In this paper the Weibull distribution for even-aged forest stands instead of uniform distribution chosen by Zeng is used. By comparing the results of the improved method with those of the original method of Zeng, it turns out that the improved method of Zeng given in this paper is more efficient.

Effects of stand features and soil enzyme activity on spontaneous pedunculate oak regeneration in Scots pine dominated stands – implication for forest management

Background:A challenge in current forestry is adaptation of managed forests to climate change,which is likely to alter the main processes of forest dynamics,i.e.natural regeneration.Scots pine will probably lose some parts of its distribution area in Europe.However,two native oaks,pedunculate and sessile may maintain or expand the area of their occurrence in central Europe.The utilization of spontaneous(not initialized by foresters)oak regeneration in Scots pine stands for the creation of next generation stands is one of the adaptation methods to climate change.Many factors influencing pedunculate oak regeneration are well known,but there is a lack of knowledge on the relation between soil enzyme activity and the establishment and development of the species.The aim of the study was to identify the relationships among stand characteristics,herb species composition,soil enzyme activity and the establishment or recruitment of oak regeneration in Scots pine-dominated stands.Results:The one of the most influential factors shaping the oak seedling count was dehydrogenase activity in the humus horizon.We found that plots without litter and fern cover had higher seedling density.The raspberry ground cover and birch crown projection area had a positive influence on oak seedling number.The factor indicating good conditions for high density of oak saplings was phosphatase activity in the organic horizon.The same enzyme activity but in humus horizon described conditions in which more numerous recruits were observed.Conclusions:The activity of soil enzymes can be used as the predictor of the establishment and advancement of oak regeneration but also could be seen as a new dimension of oak regeneration.The general density of spontaneous oak regeneration was not sufficient for the creation of new generation forest stands dominated by oak,but it is possible to use them as admixtures in new generation stands.

Changes in the growth of Scots pine(Pinus sylvestris L.)stands in an urban environment in European Russia since 1862

A century and a half ago,in the European part of Russia(Moscow),forest scientists established the first long-term observations of forests,many of which are under observation to the present day.In the twentieth century,climate changes and,due to industrial development,forest areas were under air pollution.Based on observations from 157 sites,this study shows that the growth and density of Scots pine(Pinus sylvestris L.)have decreased by the end of the twentieth century.The environment has changed,and the growth and development of plantations has slowed.Pine yields(-34%stand volume)and their life expectancy(on average 50 years)have decreased.These changes are critical for forestry and for the management of forests in urban centers.Due to the decline in growth,ecosystem functions by urban forests has decreased.In order to increase the sustainability of urban forests and the provision of ecosystem services,it is preferable to create multi-species stands with a complex structure.

Ice storm damage to oak forests in subtropical China

Ice storms,as important sources of frequent and injurious disturbances,drive forest dynamics in the Northern Hemisphere.However,stand-level differential vulnerability to ice storms and the associated factors that predispose forest stands remain unclear.This is particularly concerning in the subtropics where the frequency of ice storms is predicted to increase with global warming.Here we assessed how the impact on three forest stands(early and late secondary-growth forests,and old-growth forests)differed after an extreme ice storm during 20–21 March 2022,and identified the abiotic and biotic factors that determine the damage intensity in the Shennongjia World Natural Heritage Site,a biodiversity conservation hotspot in central China.We found a stand-specific‘middomain effect’where the late secondary-growth forest sustained the most severe damage,the early secondarygrowth forest sustained the least,and the old-growth forest suffered an intermediate amount.‘Crown broken’was the most severe damage type across all three forest stands,although the proportion of‘branch broken’was also high in the old-growth forest.Topography played a significant role in determining the vulnerability of the early secondary-growth forest to severe ice storms whereas the forest structure and composition were important factors in explaining the damage rates in the old-growth forest,although they differed among the damage categories.In contrast,topography,forest structure and composition generally explain the intensity of damage in the late secondary-growth forests.Our results highlight that,in subtropical forests,the intensity of damage caused by severe ice storms and related determining factors are stand-level dependent.We also suggest exploring potential management strategies(e.g.,slow-growing hardwood species that can resist storms should be the main species for reforestation in early secondary-growth forests)to mitigate the risk of future severe ice storms,as well as other wind-related climatic extremes.

Soil quality assessment across different stands in tropical moist deciduous forests of Nagaland,India

To analyze the relationship between the management of three forest stand plantations and soil quality in the Dimapur district of the Northeastern Himalayan region,India,three forest soil profiles,covered by different species stands,at three depths were tested for 13 physical and chemical variables.Only four of these variables(electric conductivity,bulk density exchangeable Mg and available P)were included in a minimum data set,after using a varimax rotation algorithm in a principal component analysis,and subsequently used to calculate a soil quality index(SQI).Results showed higher SQIs in the surface layers(0–20 cm depth)than in the deeper ones.Average weighed SQI varied significantly(P<0.05)through the three considered forest sites,with the lowest value at site FS3.These findings reveal that the approach used here is suitable for preliminary screening of the impact of a forestry species on soil,to aid in species selection and improve soil health for afforestation and reforestation projects.

Assessing stand structure in successional stages of dark coniferous forests in western Sichuan, China

Subalpine dark coniferous forests in the western Sichuan Province of China play an important role in the hydrological processes in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River. Second-growth forests, with different stand successional stages, have developed as a result of logging over the past 50 years. Forest cover and stand structure changed greatly with concomitant degradation of forest ecosystem functions. To understand how the stand structures of the second-growth forests change during the stand succession process, we analyzed stand structure characteristics and an old-growth state index of the bamboo and moss-forest types. We found that stand structure at the young successional stage featured one-third of the structure characteristics of the old-growth dark coniferous forests,while the structure of the medium-aged stage had reached half the structure of the old-growth state. The two forest types were similar in the rate of development at the young successional stage but differed at the medium-aged stage;the moss-forest type had more advanced development than the bamboo-forest type at the medium-aged successional stage.

Operational impacts to residual stands following ground-based skidding in Hyrcanian Forest, northern Iran

Hyrcanian （Caspian） Forest in northern Iran has a richness of biological diversity, with endemic and endangered species. The usage of ground-based skidding is well accepted practice for the extraction of timber from the forest, but this operation has tended to cause the greatest environmental problems. The aims of the study were to evaluate and comparison of operational impacts, residual stand damage, regeneration, and to quantify these effects such as： the extent of the damage, wounding patterns, size and distribution after logging operations that utilized two different methods： short log and long log. A Timbetjack cable skidder was used and the study location was in the Kheyrud Forest. Post harvesting assessment of damage to the residual stand was compared along skid trail by 100% inventory method and also for the assessment of regeneration damage along winching strips. The results show that along winching strips the percentage of damage to the regeneration was 44% and 36%, while the tree damages along skid trails reached 2.3% and 4.1% in the short log and long log methods, respectively. The greatest average amount of damage to a bole occurred along the first 1 m up from the ground （97%） and also within 4 m of the skidder centerline （80%）. These results show that the short log method causes less damage to the residual stand than the longog method. Tree location to skidder trail appears to have a significant effect on the number and height of scars on a tree. Well designed and constructed trails should be wide enough to allow wood extraction from the forest. Damage to the residual stand might be reduced by proper planning and training of logging crews.

Tree species diversity and stand structure along major community types in lowland primary and secondary moist deciduous forests in Tripura,Northeast India

Tree species diversity and population structure at different community types were described and analyzed for primary and secondary lowland moist deciduous forests in Tripura. Overall 10,957 individual trees belonging to 46 family, 103 genera and 144 species were counted at ≥30 cm DBH （diameter at breast height） using 28 permanent belt transects with a size of 1 ha （10 m × 1000 m）. Four different tree communities were identified. The primary forests was dominated by Shorea robusta （mean density 464.77 trees.ha^-1, 105 species） and Schima wallichii （336.25 trees.ha^-1, 82 species）, while the secondary forests was dominated by Tectona grandis （333.88 trees.ha^-1, 105 species） and Hevea brasiliensis （299.67 trees.ha^-1, 82 species）. Overall mean basal area in this study was 18.01m2.ha^-1; the maximum value was recorded in primary Shorea forest （26.21 m2.ha^-1）. Mean density and diversity indices were differed significantly within four different communities. No significant differences were observed in number of species, genera, family and tree basal cover area. Significant relationships were found between the species richness and different tree population groups across the communities. Results revealed that species diversity and density were increased in those forests due to past disturbances which resulted in slow accumu- lation of native oligarchic small tree species. Seventeen species were recorded with 〈2 individuals of which Saraca asoka （Roxb.） de Wilde and Entada phaseoloides （L.） Men＇. etc. extensively used in local ethnomedicinal formulations. The present S. robusta Gaertn dominated forest was recorded richer （105 species） than other reported studies. Moraceae was found more speciose family instead of Papilionaceae and Euphorbiaceae than other Indian moist deciduous forests. Seasonal phenological gap in such moist deciduous forests influenced the population of Trachypithecus pileatus and capped langur. The analysis of FIV suggested a slow trend of shifting the population of Lamiaceae group by Moraceae species in secondary T. grandis L. dominated community.

Forest structure of a maple old-growth stand: a case study on the Apennines mountains(Southern Italy)

In Europe, very small forest areas can be considered to be old-growth, and they are mainly located in Eastern Europe. The typical structures of old growth forests infrequently occur in Mediterranean mountainous environments, since they have been affected by human activities for centuries. This study focused on a remote and almost pure Italian maple stand located in southern Italy, which has not been managed for long time due to its inaccessibility. The effects of natural evolution on the forest stand were evaluated through the analysis of the spatial and chronological structure and the regeneration patterns, then estimating the amounts and quality of deadwood occurrence. Across the whole stand, all the trees with DBH(diameter at breast height) larger than 50 cm(LLT, large living trees) were measured(DBH and height) and age was also determined through a dendrochronological approach. The diameters observed ranged between 50 and 145 cm with ages of 120 to 250 years. The Latham index calculated for trees within the sample plot highlighted a multilayered canopy with a dominant layer of largeliving trees(age > 120 years). The size-class distribution of stems had a reverse-J shape, and basal area was 52 m^2 ha^(-1). Deadwood was exclusively constituted by standing dead trees and CWD and its volume was on average 31 m^3 ha^(-1). Pure Italian maple forests are generally rare in Europe, and it was unexpected to find a forest stand characterized by a so complex structure with old growth attributes. The study of complex forest stand, even if small, could give precious information on the forest evolution, clarifying also diverse auto-ecological traits of tree species that usually are not common in our forests.

Relationship between stand characteristics and soil properties of two typical forest plantations in the mountainous area of Western Sichuan, China

There is uncertainty and limited knowledge regarding stand characteristics and soil properties of middle-aged pure forest plantations in the mountainous area of Western Sichuan. Plantation forests are almost exclusively planted as monocultures in the Pengzhou forest farm in the western mountainous area of Sichuan Province. This study aimed to assess the spatial and ecological characteristics of middle-aged Cunninghamia lanceolata(Lamb.) Hook. and Cryptomeria fortunei Hooibr. in the Pengzhou forest farm. The relationships and differences between stand growth characteristics and forest soil composition were assessed on the two forests planted simultaneously within the same area and exposed to the same environmental conditions. Cr. fortunei grew sparse, and slower than Cun. lanceolata. Principal component analysis indicated that the soil properties in the Cr. fortunei plantation were better than those in the Cun. lanceolata plantation. Redundancy analysis revealed that the differences in stand structure were affected significantly by the total nitrogen content and pH value. Thus, we propose that Cr. fortunei is planted for priority consideration in the subtropical high mountain area. Further, tending operations and application of fertilizers need to be conducted in Cun. lanceolata forests. Based on theoretical and experimental data, the present study explains why local farmers are more willing to plant Cr. fortunei, and thus provides a useful theoretical reference for the development of sustainable plantations in the future.

Coarse woody debris and wood-colonizing fungi differences between a reserve stand and a managed forest in the Taborz region of Poland

The aim of this research was to evaluate the amount of woody debris (m3/ha) on the forest floor and the associated wood-colonizing fungi. The study was performed in the Taborz region, known for its Scots pine provenance experiments, against the background of a recently launched Polish legislation to protect the biodiversity on the forest floor in managed (harvested) stands. We investigated a managed stand (136-years-old) and the reserve stand ‘Sosna Taborska’(261-years-old). In the reserve stand, the mean volume of woody debris was six times higher than in the managed forests, i.e. 65 versus 11 m3/ha. In addition, in the reserve stand, the number of fungi taxa colonizing the dead wood was larger than in the managed stands, with a higher number of fruitbodies. Total fungal richness was higher in the reserve than in the managed stand, i.e. 28 versus 12 species. The dominant taxa at both sites were Fomitopsis pinicola and Fomes The aim of this research was to evaluate the amount of woody debris (m^3/ha) on the forest floor and the associated wood-colonizing fungi. The study was performed in the Taborz region, known for its Scots pine provenance experiments, against the background of a recently launched Polish legislation to protect the biodiversity on the forest floor in managed (harvested) stands. We investigated a managed stand (136-years-old) and the reserve stand ‘Sosna Taborska’(261-years-old). In the reserve stand, the mean volume of woody debris was six times higher than in the managed forests, i.e. 65 versus 11 m^3/ha. In addition, in the reserve stand, the number of fungi taxa colonizing the dead wood was larger than in the managed stands, with a higher number of fruitbodies. Total fungal richness was higher in the reserve than in the managed stand, i.e. 28 versus 12 species. The dominant taxa at both sites were Fomitopsis pinicola and Fomes fomentarius, although some taxa were only found in the reserve (e.g., Stereum hirsutum). The volume of woody debris as well as the diversity of fungi in the managed stand were lower than in the reserve, albeit greater than in other Scots pine stands in Poland. These results testify to the gains in biodiversity yielded by the management conservation management approach at the reserve stand.

Stand development patterns of forest cover types in the natural forests of northern Baekdudaegan in South Korea

The purpose of this study was to classify current forest cover types,and to investigate stand development patterns for natural forests in six areas in northern Baekdudaegan,South Korea.Twenty-eight independent forest communities were aggregated into eight forest cover types by species composition in the overstory of each forest community.The forest cover types were of mixed mesophytic,‘‘others’ ’ deciduous,Quercus mongolica dominant,Q.mongolica pure,Pinus densiflora–Q.mongolica,P.densiflora,Betula ermanii,and Q.mongolica–P.koraiensis.The ecological information was organized by importance value and species diversity for each forest type.Based on the correlation between species diversity index and the abundance of Q.mongolica plus P.densiflora for corresponding forest cover types,we compared the developmental process and approximate successional pathway between each cover type.The P.densiflora forest cover type changes into the P.densiflora–Q.mongolica cover type,followed by the Q.mongolica dominant cover type through continuous invasion of the oak trees.Furthermore,the Q.mongolica pure cover type would spread toward the Q.mongolica dominant cover type with a mixture of various deciduous tree species.The Q.mongolica dominant cover type progresses through the other deciduous cover types to the mixed mesophytic cover type with diversified composition and structure.On the mid to lower slopes,with loamy soils and good moisture conditions,various deciduous forest types should progress,by ecological succession,toward the mixed mesophytic cover type without any further disturbance.

Stand age structural dynamics of conifer, mixedwood, and hardwood stands in the boreal forest of central Canada

To study the effects of stand development and overstory composition on stand age structure, we sampled 32 stands representing conifer, mixedwood, and hardwood stand types, ranging in ages from 72 to 201 years on upland mesic sites in northwestern Ontario. We defined the stages of stand development as: stem exclusion/canopy transition, canopy transition, canopy transition/gap dynamics, and gap dynamics. Stand age structure of conifer stands changed from bimodal, bimodal, reverse-J, and bimodal, respectively, through the stages of stand development. Mixedwood and hardwood stands revealed similar trends, with the exception of missing the canopy transition/gap dynamic stage in mixedwoods. Canopy transition/gap dynamic stage in hardwoods showed a weaker reverse-J distribution than their conifer counterparts. The results suggest that forest management activities such as partial and selection harvesting and seed-tree systems may diversify standard landscape-level age structures and benefit wildlife, hasten the onset of old-growth, and create desired stand age structures. We also recommend that the determination of old-growth using the following criteria in the boreal forest: 1) canopy breakdown of pioneering cohort is complete and stand is dominated by later successional tree species, and 2) stand age structure is bimodal, with dominating canopy trees that fall within a relatively narrow range of age and height classes and a significant amount of understory regeneration.

Exploratory analysis of structural diversity indicators at stand level in three Italian beech sites and implications for sustainable forest management

The present study introduces an exploratory data analysis based on structural indicators with the aim to assess the effect of silvicultural practices on tree stand structure. The study was carried out in three Italian beech forests of different ages with stand structures that originated from dissimilar regeneration and cultivation techniques(Cansiglio, northern Italy, Chiarano, central Italy,and Mongiana, southern Italy). Ten structural indicators were considered when investigating the latent multivariate relationship between stand structure attributes before and after thinning operations by using a multiway factor analysis(MFA). The MFA results identified the older stand at Cansiglio as more homogeneous for cultivation regimes,and more stable to practices when compared with the younger sites(Chiarano and Mongiana). Heterogeneous stands were sensitive to silvicultural practice thus suggesting their possible impact on forest attributes. The proposed approach proved to be an operational tool to evaluate comprehensively the response of forest structure to planned interventions.

重庆四面山不同林分土壤抗蚀抗冲特征

为探讨重庆四面山地区不同林分土壤抗蚀抗冲特征,采用水浸试验和冲刷试验,计算土壤抗蚀指数与抗冲系数,对四面山4种林分类型(针叶林、阔叶林、针阔混交林和楠竹林),共9个不同植物组成的林地土壤抗蚀抗冲特征进行研究。结果表明:1)阔叶林的抗蚀指数最大,楠竹林抗蚀指数最小,随着土壤深度的增加,土壤抗蚀性能减弱,天然针阔混交林土壤抗蚀指数上下层差异最大(1.92倍)。2)二次多项式函数能高度拟合不同林分土壤抗蚀指数与水浸时间的关系(R2>0.95),随着水浸时间的增加,不同林分土壤抗蚀性能下降。3)土层越深,土壤抗冲系数越大,抗冲性能越强,坡面上层土壤抗冲系数为下层的1.05~5.79倍。阔叶林的抗冲性优于其他林分。4)≤1和>1~3 mm根径的根系总根长与根长密度与土壤抗蚀指数显著正相关(P<0.05),与土壤抗冲性呈显著负相关(P<0.05)。土壤抗蚀性和抗冲系数与总根质量、根质量密度呈显著负相关(P<0.05)。研究结果可为重庆四面山水土保持措施布设、选择合理的植被恢复模式及配置方式提供理论依据。

混交对杉木和山杜英混交林生长、结构和生产力的影响

为探究杉木(Cunninghamia lanceolata)与山杜英(Elaeocarpus sylvestris)的混交效应,以景德镇枫树山林场20年生杉木纯林、山杜英纯林和杉木-山杜英混交林为研究对象,每种林分类型设置3种坡位(上坡、中坡和下坡),分析树种混交对林分生长的影响,并分别探究混交效应对立地条件和生境因子的响应。结果表明:混交林蓄积较预期蓄积增加5%,表现略微增产;混交林中杉木蓄积较杉木纯林增加15%,混交林中山杜英蓄积较山杜英纯林减少13%。相对于纯林,两树种直径分布特征对混交的响应呈相反趋势,混交林中杉木直径分布峰值向高阶移动,而混交林中山杜英直径分布峰值向低阶移动。混交林及其纯林粗根直径-胸径的异速生长分析表明,混交林中杉木生长侧重于树干生长,而山杜英生长侧重于根系生长;无论林型和树种,坡位由上到下,林木生长会侧重于树干生长。杉木-山杜英混交效应与地位指数呈显著负相关(P<0.05),土壤有效磷是混交林生长的主要限制因子。杉木与山杜英混交可促进林分生长,且混交林对较差立地条件有更好的适应性。

大娄山典型林分灌木地上载量影响因子及预测模型

【目的】灌木作为森林可燃物中的重要组成部分,其载量对森林垂直方向燃烧及极端火发生可能性有重要影响,西南林区作为我国第二大林区,年均火灾次数位于全国前列。调查该区域典型林分灌木载量,分析其影响因素,并建立预测模型,对于该地区预防森林火灾和林火管理工作具有重要意义。【方法】本研究以大娄山6种典型林分内灌木为研究对象,通过野外布设并调查基本信息,进行野外实验及室内实验,获得灌木地上干、枝、叶及总载量,得到其影响因子并分别建立预测模型。【结果】1)对相同林型不同标准地进行研究,马尾松林灌木枝载量及柏树林灌木叶载量均有显著差异,阔叶混交林灌木枝、叶载量具有显著差异,且干载量及总载量具有极显著差异;不同林型之间灌木干、枝、叶及总载量之间无显著差异。2)同一林型内灌木干、枝、叶及总载量与平均树高、平均地径、平均高、平均胸径、林分密度、坡度、海拔等均有相关性(相关性逐渐减弱);不同林型内灌木干、枝、叶及总载量与平均地径、平均树高、平均胸径、平均高、坡度、平均冠幅等均有相关性(相关性逐渐减弱)。3)建立模型:杉木林灌木干、枝载量模型及灌木林灌木干、枝、总载量模型(R2=0.998)拟合效果最好,马尾松林枝载量模型拟合效果最差(R^(2)=0.318)。【结论】通过本研究,为大娄山地区典型林分内灌木载量调查提供了基础数据和方法,对于森林火险预报和森林火灾风险普查中可燃物载量调查具有重要意义。

寒温带多年冻土区不同林龄白桦林土壤酶活性动态特征

为探究寒温带白桦(Betula platyphylla)次生林土壤酶活性随林龄变化的动态特征,分析土壤酶活性与环境因子的关系,选择大兴安岭北部不同林龄(30、45、66 a)白桦林为研究对象,测定土壤深度(h)为0<h≤5 cm、5 cm<h≤10 cm、10 cm<h≤20 cm、20 cm<h≤30 cm土层土壤碳、氮质量分数及磷转化酶(过氧化氢酶、蔗糖酶、脲酶、酸性磷酸酶)活性,并对其动态变化规律及影响因子进行分析。结果表明:6—10月份,3个林龄的白桦林土壤过氧化氢酶、蔗糖酶、脲酶、酸性磷酸酶活性呈单峰曲线变化趋势,变化范围分别为0.85~4.14 mL·g^(-1)、4.77~70.34 mg·g^(-1)、0.90~11.12 mg·g^(-1)、0.07~0.75 mg·g^(-1)。林龄对土壤酶活性有显著影响,林龄为30 a时,白桦林土壤酶活性较低;林龄为45 a时,白桦林土壤过氧化氢酶、蔗糖酶、酸性磷酸酶活性相对较高,林龄为66 a时,白桦林土壤脲酶活性较高。林龄为30 a的白桦林土壤过氧化氢酶及酸性磷酸酶活性在各土层均表现为7月份最高,8月份时该林龄表层(0<h≤5 cm)土壤蔗糖酶活性最高。林龄为45 a的白桦林各土层过氧化氢酶活性及表层土壤蔗糖酶、酸性磷酸酶活性均为9月份最高。林龄为66 a的白桦林表层土壤过氧化氢酶、脲酶、酸性磷酸酶活性均为8月份最高,而其他土层在该林龄时这3种酶活性的变化规律差异较大。微生物生物量碳是驱动林龄为30 a的白桦林土壤酶活性变化的主要因子,土壤含水率及可溶性有机碳对林龄为45 a的白桦林土壤酶活性影响较大,林龄为66 a的白桦林土壤酶活性主要影响因子则是硝态氮。林龄对白桦林土壤酶活性影响显著,过氧化氢酶、蔗糖酶、酸性磷酸酶活性随林龄增加呈先增后降的变化趋势,脲酶活性则随林龄增加而增加。

云杉次生林林下植被、枯落物及土壤特征对林分密度的响应

以山西省庞泉沟自然保护区80年生云杉次生林为研究对象,通过样地调查、样品收集和实验室浸水实验,运用方差和多重比较等方法分析了不同林分密度云杉次生林林下植物多样性、枯落物和土壤水源涵养特征。结果表明:研究区域内林下植被物种较匮乏,林分密度越小,灌木层物种越丰富,灌木层以扶芳藤和苎麻为主;草本层物种多样性与林分密度关系不明显,草本层的苔草为绝对优势种。枯落物厚度随林分密度的增加而减小,且3个林分之间无明显差异。中密度时,枯落物生物量、最大持水量和有效拦蓄量均为最大,分别为36.56、81.50、31.58 t/hm^(2)。不同林分密度的土壤容重规律为:低密度>高密度>中密度,即中密度林分的平均土壤容重最小,为0.89 g/cm^(3)。总孔隙度表现为:低密度<高密度<中密度。中密度时,土壤层总持水量和土壤层总有效持水量均为最大,分别为3 945.61、364.00 t/hm^(2)。因研究区域位于黄土高原区,该区域森林的水源涵养功能更为重要,建议将山西省庞泉沟自然保护区80年生云杉次生林的合理林分密度控制在600~700株/hm^(2)。

基于结构方程模型的杉木林林分结构多样性评价

综合评价杉木林林分结构多样性,可为提高林分结构多样性和精准制定森林经营措施提供理论依据。以湖南省平江县福寿林场的杉木林为研究对象,利用4株邻近木构建林分空间结构单元,选取表征林分树种组成多样性的全混交度、Simpson多样性指数与Shannon-Wiener指数,表征林木大小分化多样性的大小变异系数、大小分化度均值指数与交角竞争指数和表征林木空间分布多样性的角尺度、林层指数与空间密度指数等9个指标,构建林分结构多样性评价结构方程模型,并确定各指标权重,对林分结构多样性进行综合评价。结果表明:(1)林分结构多样性评价结构方程模型的卡方自由度比值χ2/df为1.409,介于1—3之间,比较适配指数(CFI)、常规拟合指数(NFI)、增值适配指数(TLI)和拟合优度指数(GFI)的值分别为0.985、0.953、0.978和0.931,均大于0.9,近似误差均方根(RMSEA)为0.048,小于0.05,各指数的拟合效果良好,模型的适配度较好,满足研究的需要;(2)3个内生潜在变量林分树种组成多样性、林木大小分化多样性和林木空间分布多样性的权重分别为0.3518、0.3201和0.3281,对外生潜在变量林分结构多样性的影响大致一样,Shannon-Wiener指数是影响林分树种组成多样性的关键因素,交角竞争指数是影响林木大小分化多样性的关键因素,林层指数是影响林木空间分布多样性的最重要因素;(3)研究区3个龄组杉木林林分结构多样性的综合得分分别为0.3364、0.4396和0.4588,评价等级处于Ⅱ、Ⅲ等级,林分结构多样性较低,未达到理想的状态。评价结果较客观地表征了研究区杉木林林分结构多样性的现状,表明利用结构方程模型来评价林分结构多样性是科学、可行的,可为林分结构多样性评价提供一个全新的思路。