Seasonal variation of carbon exchange of typical forest ecosystems along the eastern forest transect in China

The long-term and continuous carbon fluxes of Changbaishan temperate mixed forest (CBS), Qianyanzhou subtropical evergreen coniferous forest (QYZ), Dinghushan subtropical evergreen mixed forest (DHS) and Xishuangbana tropical rainforest (XSBN) have been measured with eddy covariance techniques. In 2003, different responses of carbon exchange to the environment appeared across the four ecosystems. At CBS, the carbon exchange was mainly determined by radiation and temperature. 0℃and 10℃were two important temperature thresholds; the former determined the length of the growing season and the latter affected the magnitude of carbon exchange. The maximum net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of CBS occurred in early summer because maximum ecosystem photosynthesis (GPP) occurred earlier than maximum ecosystem respiration (Rθ). During summer, QYZ experienced severe drought and NEE decreased significantly mainly as a result of the depression of GPP. At DHS and XSBN, NEE was higher in the drought season than the wet season, especially the conversion between carbon sink and source occurring during the transition season at XSBN. During the wet season, increased fog and humid weather resulted from the plentiful rainfall, the ecosystem GPP was dispressed. The Q10 and annual respiration of XSBN were the highest among the four ecosystems, while the average daily respiration of CBS during the growing season was the highest. Annual NEE of CBS, QYZ, DHS and XSBN were 181.5, 360.9, 536.2 and -320.0 g·C·m-2·a-1, respectively. From CBS to DHS, the temperature and precipitation increased with the decrease in latitude. The ratio of WEE/Rθincreased with latitude, while Rθ/Gpp, ecosystem light use efficiency (LUE), precipitation use efficiency and average daily GPP decreased gradually. However, XSBN usually escaped such latitude trend probably because of the influence of the south-west monsoon climate which does not affect the other ecosystems. Long-term measurement and more research were necessary to understand the adaptation of forest ecosystems to climate change and to evaluate the ecosystem carbon balance due to the complexity of structure and function of forest ecosystems.

A floristic survey of the Hyrcanian forests in Northern Iran, using two lowland-mountain transects

We investigated the floristic composition of the Hyrcanian forests and the related forest-steppe ecotone in Northern Iran by using two long ecological transects, from lowland to upper mountain areas. The study was conducted during 2008 and 2009 and yielded the identification of 395 plant taxa belonging to 233 genera and 78 families. Dicots with 300 taxa were the richest groups of the flora, followed by monocots with 75 taxa, pteridophytes with 18 species,and gymnosperms with two species. The largest families were Asteraceae（33 taxa）; Rosaceae（32 taxa）; and Poaceae（30 taxa）, and the most diverse genera included Carex（15 taxa）; Alchemilla（7 taxa）; and Poa, Geranium and Acer（6 taxa each）. Hemicryptophytes were the most dominant life forms in the area（40 %）; followed by geophytes（31.4 %）; phanerophytes（15.4 %）; therophytes（11.4 %）; and chamaephytes（1.8 %）. Phytogeographically,Euro-Siberian/Irano-Turanian elements（86 taxa, 21.8 %）and Euro-Siberian elements（85 taxa, 21.5 %） were the most common chorotypes in the area. Out of 395 taxa, 66taxa（16.7 %） were endemics and subendemics in Iran, of which 26 taxa were exclusively endemics of Iran.According to the IUCN Red List Categories, 48 threatened plant taxa were found in the study area. Plant diversity, life form, and chorotypes in the current study were compared with similar transect studies in other areas of the Hyrcanian forests and in different altitudinal belts, using S？renson similarity indices. Floristic composition of the surveyed transects demonstrated almost 50 % similarity between them.

Leaf macro-and micro-morphological altitudinal variability of Carpinus betulus in the Hyrcanian forest (Iran)

We investigated the altitudinal variation of Carpinus betulus L. in the Hyrcanian forest using leaf macro-morphological and micro-morphological traits. We collected a total of 1600 leaves from two locations. In each location, we sampled six populations along an altitudinal gradient ranging from 100 m to 1,150 m. We found that trees in the higher elevations have smaller leaf lamina than those in the lower elevations. In contrast, leaf mass per area was high at low altitudes and increased newly at the higher ones. Stomatal dimension was negatively correlated with elevation, while stomatal density was positively correlated with elevation. We also found that two transects showed the same plasticity trend. Leaf area showed the highest plasticity, while the number of veins showed the lowest plasticity. This study shows that altitude, and related temperature and rainfall, represents an important driving force in Carpinus betulus leaf morphological variation. Moreover, our results suggest that leaf area, leaf mass per area and stomatal density could influence the species responses to different ecological conditions.

Comparison of fixed area and distance sampling methods in open forests:case study of Zagros Forest,Iran

The main aim of this study was to evaluate methods for fixed area and distance sampling in the Zagros open forest area in western Iran. Basic forest management and planning required appropriate quantitative and qualitative information. Two sampling methods were compared on the basis of the actual means of characteristics derived from the 100 % survey. In total, 37 sampling plots were systematically installed with a grid of 100 m × 100 m in the study area. Density, crown canopy, and basal area of the stands were measured. The 100 % survey showed that tree density above 12.5 cm diameter at breast height was 68.04 stem ha-1, basal area was 15.16 m2 ha-1 and crown canopy percentage was 35.71% ha-1. The values for the traits determined by the two sampling methods differed significantly （P = 0.05）. When the time required for the methods was compared, transect sampling required less than systematic-random sampling. Therefore, the transect sampling method was the more economical method for the Zagros open forests. The transect sampling method was statistically defensible and practical for quantitating characteristics of the Zagros open forests.

A new sampling method in the Zagros forests using GIS(case study: Ilam forests of Iran)

One of the basic parameters in forest management planning is detailed knowledge of growing stock,information collected by forest inventory.Sampling methods must be accurate,inexpensive,and be easy to implement in the field.This study presents a new sampling method called branching transect for use in the Iranian Zagros forests and similar forests.Features of the new method include greater accuracy,easy implementation in nature,simplicity of statistical calculations,and low cost.In this method,transect is used,which includes some subtransects(side branches).The length of the main transect,side branches,number of trees measured in each side branch,and the number of sub-branches in this method are changeable based on homogeneity,heterogeneity,and density of a forest.In this study,based on the density and heterogeneity of the forest area studied,20-m transects with four and eight side branches were used.Sampling plots(Transects)in four inventory networks(100 m×100 m,100 m×150 m,150 m×150 m and 100 m×200 m)were implemented in the GIS environment.The results of this sampling method were compared to the results of total inventory(100%count)in terms of accuracy,precision(t-test),and inventory error percentage.Branching transect results were statistially similar to total inventory counts in all cases.The results show that this method of estimating density and canopy per hectare can be used in Zagros forests and similar forests.

Estimation of Population of Ten Selected Forest Tree Species Used by Communities around Kalinzu Forest Reserve, South-Western Uganda

Local communities depend on Kalinzu Forest Reserve (KFR) for plant resources. This resource utilization affects the population of tree species in the forest. This study set out to estimate the population of ten tree species in the forest. Results of this study are hoped to provide a basis for studying future changes in population dynamics of the species. The ten species selected were: Newtonia buchananii, Cynometra alexandrei, Teclea nobilis, Prunus africana, Entandrophragma exelsum, Sapium ellipticum, Diospyros abyssinica, Zanthoxylum gilletii, Rytiginia kigeziensis and Spathodea nilotica. Their selection was based on the results of a study (Aine-Omucunguzi et al., 2010) about utilization of plant resources by the local people around KFR. Species with high demand from the local people were selected. Alternate nested quadrants along five line transects, were used to estimate the population. The plants were categorized into three classes as trees (>5 cm diameter at breast height), saplings (2 cm root collar diameter-5 cm diameter at breast height) and wildings (<2 cm root collar diameter). Population, population density, relative density, frequency, and relative frequency of each species were determined. Generally, the number of wildings, saplings and trees of each species increased away from the forest edge inwards. For all the species, wildings had the highest population density followed by saplings and then trees. Teclea nobilis had the highest number of individual per hectare, followed by Newtonia buchananii, while Rytiginia kigeziensis and Spathodea nilotica had the lowest number of individuals per hectare.

Quantifying Arborescent Flora Diversity in a Secondary Forest Ecosystem: A Comprehensive Assessment in Nambalan, Mayantoc, Tarlac, Philippines

Forest plays a crucial role in providing essential ecosystem services, including water supply, climate regulation, and biodiversity conservation. This study aimed to assess the current state of the forest in Barangay Nambalan, Mayantoc, Tarlac. The specific objectives were to identify tree species in the area and determine the tree diversity index, with a focus on endemism and conservation status. Two transect lines, each spanning one kilometer, were established and a total of 10 sampling quadrats were surveyed. Ecological parameters (relative frequency, relative density, relative dominance, and importance value index) and diversity indices (Shannon-Weiner index, Simpson’s index) were computed using the Paleontological Statistic Software Package for Educational Analysis (PAST 4.03). A comprehensive inventory revealed a total of 756 individuals representing 52 species, 46 genera, and 25 families. Among the recorded species, 10 (17.2%) were endemic and 11 (21.6%) were classified as threatened. The Fabaceae (20.8%), Moraceae (14.6%), and Euphorbiaceae (8.3%) were identified as the most abundant families. The computed diversity indices indicated that Barangay Nambalan retains a diverse forest cover;however, species composition was found to be relatively low. Based on the finding, this study recommends the strict enforcement of protective measures and legislation to mitigate further degradation of the remaining forest in Barangay Nambalan.

中国东部森林样带典型森林水源涵养功能

通过对我国东部森林样带4个森林生态系统定位研究站(长白山站、北京站、会同站和鼎湖山站)的9种森林类型水源涵养监测数据的分析,研究了水热梯度下不同森林生态系统水源涵养功能。结果表明:在生长季的5—10月份,各森林类型的水源涵养特性表现出较大差异。林冠截留率的大小依次为:阔叶红松林>杉木林>常绿阔叶林>针阔混交林>季风常绿阔叶林>落叶阔叶混交林>马尾松林>落叶松林>油松林,最高的长白山站阔叶红松林的截留率是最低的北京站油松林的2.2倍。森林降雨截留量与林外降雨量呈显著的正相关,林冠截留率与降雨量呈显著负相关。枯落物最大持水深(5—10月份)以北京站落叶阔叶林最大,为6.0 mm;鼎湖山站的季风常绿阔叶林最小,为1.0 mm。0—60 cm土层蓄水量最大的是会同站的人工杉木林,为247 mm;最小的是北京站的落叶松林,仅为45.5 mm;林分总持水量依次为:杉木林>阔叶红松林>常绿阔叶林>针阔混交林>季风常绿阔叶林>落叶阔叶混交林>马尾松林>落叶松林>油松林。各林分总持水量主要集中在土壤层,占总比例的90%以上。

2008年春季中国南方冰雪冻害林木物理折损典型样带分析

2008年春季我国南方发生了特大冰雪灾害,林木损害严重。选择江西省井冈山-吉泰盆地-于山山脉-武夷山支脉样带作为研究区,两次进行野外调查,结合收集的数据,进行综合分析,取得结论包括:(1)在研究样带内人工林的损毁程度为湿地松林>马尾松林>混交人工林>杉木林,在受损样本中湿地松林的实际受损比例高达61.3%,其中不可自然恢复折损实际比例达43.2%,相对比例达70.4%,主要是因为湿地松是美国南部地区外来引进种,生长块、材质疏松,而且割脂活动较强;马尾松为乡土造林先锋树种,材质较为坚硬,但受割脂活动影响,在受损样本中实际受损受损比例也高达52.5%,其中不可自然恢复折损实际比例达31.8%,相对比例达60.9%;杉木是本地树种,实际受损比例46%,其中不可自然恢复受损实际仅14.9%,相对比例也仅32.5%,低于混交人工林。(2)调查样带自西向东,西部井冈山地区常绿阔叶林受损程度最轻,分布在700m左右的人工柳杉林受损严重,杉木林分布在700m以下的受损程度较轻,而分布在900m以上的则相对严重;中部吉泰盆地受损调查样点中,分布在低海拔的湿地松林和马尾松林,因割脂活动受损程度严重,杉木林受损最轻,长期封育的天然次生林落叶阔叶林,由于藤本植物的缠绕,导致大量冰挂积雪,受损十分严重;东部兴国和宁都县,分布在400m以下的人工飞播马尾松因个体小基本未受损,分布在400m以上的1960年代人工种植马尾松,因割脂活动,受损严重;而分布在500～900m的杉木林受损程度较轻。

北京东灵山地区植物群落多样性研究Ⅷ.群落组成随海拔梯度的变化

以样带法研究了北京东灵山地区落叶阔叶林物种组成随海拔梯度表现出的变化格局。通过变换分割样带的尺度，考察了环境的局部变化对群落主要组成物种的分布及其优势程度的影响。东灵山落叶阔叶林优势种辽东栎和五角枫几乎遍布整个样带，其它伴生乔木树种表现出明显的分布替代格局。以占据率和单种率考察了尺度对群落特征分析的影响。本区落叶阔叶林１ｍ样带最佳分割尺度为：乔木层４０ｍ，更新层８０ｍ、灌木层２０ｍ。样带法在研究植物群落随环境梯度变化格局中具有重要价值。

Analysis of forest damage caused by the snow and ice chaos along a transect across southern China in spring 2008

An abrupt ice and snow storm disaster which occurred in the spring of 2008 severely destroyed forests over a surprisingly large portion of southern China. A transect crossing Jinggang Mountain-Jitai Basin-Yushan Mountain-Wuyi Mountain was selected as the study area. The authors integrated field data collected in two field surveys to analyze the impacts of the disturbance on forests. The following results were obtained. （1） The extent of damage to plantations along the transect decreased in the order of slash pine 〉 masson pine 〉 mixed plantation 〉 Chinese fir. Slash pine is an introduced species from southern America which is characterized by fast growth, low wood quality and rich oleoresin, and showed a damage rate of 61.3% of samples, of which 70.4% cannot recover naturally. Masson pine is the native pioneer species of forests with harder wood, and 52.5% were damaged due to turpentine, of which 60.9% cannot recovery naturally. Chinese fir is a local tree species and samples showed a rate of 46% and a relative rate of 32.5%, lower than the mixed plantation. （2） From west to east along the transect, we can see that evergreen broad-leaved forest of the western transect on Jinggang Mountain showed the lightest damage extent, and a Cryptomeria plantation at an altitude of 700 m was severely destroyed while Chinese fir showed light damage below 700 m and relatively severe damage above 900 m. Masson pine and slash pine in the central transect in Jitai Basin were damaged severely due to turpentine activities, and closed natural secondary deciduous broad-leaved forest was damaged severely due to high ice and snow accumulation on intertwined shrubs. Masson pine aerial-seeding plantations below 400 m along the eastern transect in Xingguo and Ningdu counties were nearly undamaged for small tree sizes, and Chinese fir at 500-900 m altitude showed a lighter damage extent. However, masson pine which was distributed above 400 m and planted in the 1960s, was severely damaged due to turpentine.

黑石顶森林群落演替系列α多样性的尺度效应

以广东黑石顶自然保护区森林植被演替过程为研究对象 ,采用样带调查法取样 ,研究了针阔叶混交林样带及常绿阔叶林样带上取样尺度变化对群落α多样性测度的影响 ,以及α多样性测度与取样尺度之间的分形关系。结果表明 :①物种丰富度指数及Shannon指数在取样尺度逐渐扩大时 ,呈现出先急剧增加后缓慢增加的规律 ,显示出一定范围内尺度对样带α多样性测度具有强烈影响。通过α多样性指数随尺度的变化曲线估计 ,针阔叶混交林样带上比较适宜的取样尺度明显小于常绿阔叶林样带 ;②混交林样带上α多样性与取样尺度之间的分形关系比阔叶林样带明显。表明阔叶林样带比混交林样带在群落组成结构上具更高的空间变异。同时 ,对α多样性研究中的标准取样尺度问题进行了探讨 ,提出了“相对最大表现尺度”的概念。

基于样带观测理念的森林生态站构建和布局模式

全球变化样带研究是IGBP的研究热点。生态系统定位研究站是进行样带研究的基础和依托。本文从样带理念出发，在国内首次将长江流域25°～35°N范围定义为中国南部东西样带（WETSC），并探讨了中国南部东西样带（WETSC）范围内森林生态站的构建和布局模式；同时引进国外定位研究中先进的从Station到Site的理论，在江西省赣江流域提出了从南亚热带向中亚热带过渡区到中亚热带向北亚热带过渡区的九连山-井冈山-大岗山-庐山小样带；在新疆维吾尔自治区北部提出了从北向南建立阿尔泰山-额尔齐斯河-准噶尔盆地-天山小样带；同时从大城市群生态系统服务功能出发，在广东省珠江三角洲内提出了广州-番禺-中山-珠海-澳门和广州-东莞-深圳-香港的三角形小样带。

“城-郊-乡”森林生态样带植被变化梯度分析

沿纽约市“市区－郊区－农区”１４０ｋｍ森林生态样带，对９个样地１９个样方的森林植被进行了研究。植被组成和结构沿样带变化明显，分异出城区森林、郊区森林和农区森林等不同类型，优势种替代明显，植物种类也形成了不同的生态类型。植被的梯度变化与人类活动密切相关，城市化对植被有重要影响。森林生态样带是研究人类活动对植被影响的好手段。

北京东灵山地区植物群落多样性研究 Ⅸ.尺度变化对α多样性的影响

具有环境梯度或小尺度生境异质性的群落，α多样性在不同尺度及不同空间位置上的测定结果将存在差异。本文以北京东灵山地区落叶阔叶林为对象，应用样带调查法取样，研究了空间尺度变化对群落α多样性测度的影响。结果表明，１）群落乔木层、灌木层和更新层的Ｓｈａｎｎｏｎ指数在尺度扩大时，呈现出先急剧增长后趋于平稳的规律，显示出一定范围内尺度对样带的α多样性具有强烈影响。通过Ｓｈａｎｎｏｎ指数尺度变化曲线的估计，该样带α多样性研究的比较适宜取样尺度分别为，乔木层６０ｍ，灌木层７０ｍ和乔木更新层＞８０ｍ。２）群落各层次Ｓｈａｎｎｏｎ指数空间变化曲线表明，α多样性在样带上具有明显的空间变异，并且这种空间变异随取样尺度的增加而减弱。３）对样带采用群落分类（ＴＷＩＮＳＰＡＮ）方法进行区段划分的结果，乔木层可分为３个区段，灌木层可分为４个区段，乔木更新层可分为２个区段。不同区段内的α多样性表现为，乔木层由山下到山上逐渐下降；灌木层山中部较高，山上和山下较低；乔木更新层山下高于山上的趋势。

贵州红水河沟谷残存季雨林蕨类植物区系初步研究

初步研究表明,贵州红水河沟谷残存季雨林共有蕨类植物178种(含变种和变型),隶属于30科67属。该区蕨类植物中优势科、属明显,优势科有水龙骨科Polypodiaceae,金星蕨科Thelypteridaceae,卷柏科Selaginellaceae,凤尾蕨科Pteridaceae,蹄盖蕨科Athyriaceae,铁角蕨科Aspleniaceae,三叉蕨科Aspidiaceae,鳞毛蕨科Dryopteridaceae,铁线蕨科Adiantaceae;优势属有卷柏属Selaginella,凤尾蕨属Pteris,毛蕨属Cyclosorus,铁线蕨属Adiantun,短肠蕨属Allantadia,铁角蕨属Asplenium,线蕨属Colysis。区系分析结果表明,该区蕨类植物属的地理成分包含世界广布成分、热带成分、热带亚热带成分、亚热带成分、温带成分和东亚成分等6个成分类型,以热带亚热带成分(含26属)为主,频率达44.83%;种的区系成分包含世界广布成分、热带成分、热带亚热带成分、温带成分、东亚成分和中国特有成分等6个成分类型,以热带亚热带成分为主(含103种),频率达59.54%。聚类分析结果显示,该蕨类区系与深圳南山区蕨类植物区系地理成分的组成最为相似。

固定小班与不等长样带的森林调查技术

以小班为单位开展森林经营、管护、各林种林分结构调整、森林资源动态监测、森林资产评估 ,是我国市场经济、林业经营体制改革、法制建设向纵深发展而对森林经理工作的急切需要。笔者对区划林种经营固定小班 ,采用不等长样带抽样调查法进行了资源调查 ,确保实际精度≥ 90 %。该研究结果可供有关专业院队、资源管理部门参考。

“城-郊-乡”生态样带森林土壤重金属变化格局

沿纽约市“市区－郊区－农区”１４０ｋｍ生态样带，对９个样地２６个样方落叶阔叶林土壤的重金属含量进行了分析。重金属离子总量、重金属离子多样性等随着距市中心的距离的增加而降低，重要污染重金属离子Ｐｂ、Ｃｕ、Ｎｉ、Ｃｒ含量下降非常明显。森林土壤重金属离子格局与人口密度、城市土地利用率。

以纽约为案例的城市化对落叶阔叶林死地被层重金属含量的影响

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