Fumigant and repellent properties of sesquiterpene-rich essential oil from Teucrium polium subsp,capitatum(L.)

Objective:To test fumigant and repellent properties of sesquiterpene—rich essential oil from Teucrium polium subsp.capitation(L.).Methods:The fumigant toxicity test was performed at(27±1)℃.(65± 5)%relative humidity,and under darkness condition and 24 h exposure time.The chemical composition of the isolated oils was examined by gas chromatography—mass spectrometry.Results:The major compounds were α-cadiuol(46.2%),earyophyllene oxide(25.9%),α muurolol epi(8.1%),cadalene(3.7%) and longiverbenone(2.9%).In all cases,considerable differences in mortality of insect to essential oil vapor were observed in different concentrations and exposure times.Callosobruchus maculatus(C.maculates)(LC_(50)=148.9μL/L air) was more susceptible to the tested plant product than Teucrium castaneum(T.castaneum)(LC_(50)=360.2μL/L ain based on LC_(50)values.In the present investigation,the concentration of 3μ L /mL acetone showed 60% and 52% repellency against T.casteneum and C.maculatus adults,respectively.Conclusions:The results suggests that sesquiterpene—rich essential oils from the tested plant could be used as a potential control agent for stored—product insects.

Gelatin encapsulation of chloropicrin and 1,3-dichloropropene as fumigants for soilborne diseases in the greenhouse cultivation of cucumber and tomato

Combined use of chloropicrin （Pic） and 1,3-dicloropropene （1,3-D） is as effective as methyl bromide （MB） at controlling soilborne diseases in many trials and commercial uses. However, Pic and 1,3-D are both highly volatile and may pose strong exposure risks to humans and the environment. A gelatin capsule formulation containing Pic and 1,3-D has been developed to reduce exposure risks to workers and bystanders and improved application safety. We conducted two experiments in tomato and cucumber greenhouses located in Beijing and Qingdao, China, to study the efficacy of Pic plus 1,3-D gelatin capsules applied at different dosages and soil depths. Results indicated that both injection and gelatin capsules of Pic plus 1,3-D provided good control of soil nematodes and reduced disease index of Fusarium wilt and root-knot nematode. Plant yield of tomato and cucumber treated with gelatin capsules was similar to MB treatment. Based on our results, gelatin capsules applied at a soil depth of 15 cm provided better control of soilborne diseases and led to higher fruit yield compared to an application depth of 5 cm. In conclusion, a gelatin capsule of Pic plus 1,3-D is a promising and novel formulation, which not only shows good efficacy in controlling soilborne diseases, but also reduces potential exposure risks of fumigants.

Chemical constituents and fumigant toxicity of essential oil from Carum copticum against two stored product beetles

Plant secondary metabolites play an important role in plant-insect interactions and therefore such compounds may have insecticidal or antifeedant activity against insects. Carum copticum C. B. Clarke （Apiaceae） is one of these plants that have medicinal effects on humans. The chemical composition of the essential oil from dry seeds of C. copticum was studied by gas chromatography （GC） and gas chromatography mass spectrometry （GC-MS）. Thymol （41.34%）,α-terpinolene （17.46%） and ρ-cymene （11.76%） were found to be the major constituents of the oil. In fumigant toxicity tests with the essential oil against adults of Sitophilus oryzae （L.） and Tribolium castaneum （Herbst） at 27 ±1℃ and 60% ± 5% RH, it was observed that S. oryzae （LC50 = 0.91 μL/L） were significantly susceptible than T. castaneum （LC50 = 33.14 μL/L）. The mortalities of the insect species reached 100% at concentrations higher than 185.2 μL/L and 12-h exposure time. The findings indicate the strong insecticidal activity of C. copticum oil and its potential role as a fumigant for storedproduct insects.

Research Overview of Zhuang Medicine Fumigation Lotions

At present,there is little research on the application of Zhuang medicine fumigation lotions in skin diseases,and there is no research on related preparation processes and quality standards.In this paper,the characteristics of its formulation and the research progress in skin diseases are reviewed,in order to deepen the understanding of Zhuang medicine fumigation lotions and provide a more detailed theoretical basis for its clinical research,development and application.

Fumigant toxicity and sublethal effects of Teucrium polium essential oil on Aphis fabae scopoli A

Objective: Black bean aphid(Aphis fabae) is one of the most important greenhouse and crop pests with a wide range of hosts, which causes damages through feeding on vegetable sap and transmitting viral diseases. Currently, chemical methods are mainly used to control this pest. Considering the adverse effects of pesticides, it is essential to apply less chemical pesticide in pest control programs. The lethal and sublethal effects of the essential oil(EO) of Teucrium polium leaves on one-day-old adults of black bean aphid were investigated under laboratory conditions.Method: The bioassay was evaluated at the concentrations of 0.88-12 μL/L air, for 24 h after treatment.Reproductive life table parameters of new emerged aphid surveyed at sub-lethal concentrations(LC20 and LC40) of EO and the biological reproductive table was calculated by Jackknife method.Results: The mortality rate increased significantly with the increasing of EO concentration. The estimated LC50 value was 4.5 μL/L air. Laboratory exposure to sublethal concentrations of EO caused significant decrease in adult female longevity and fertility of surviving aphids and as a result caused significant reduction in the intrinsic rate of natural increase(rmvalue).Conclusion: The results of this study revealed that EO of T. polium could be used as a potential control agent for the aphid.

Insecticidal Potential of α-Pinene and β-Caryophyllene against Myzus persicae and Their Impacts on Gene Expression

Myzus persicae(M.persicae)is now considered a threat to agricultural crops due to economic losses.Numerous synthetic insecticides applied every year against M.persicae,are reported to be unsafe for environment,humans,and beneficial insects.Furthermore,several species of Myzus have been found to develop resistance due to over application of these insecticides.Therefore,it is required to find some novel insecticide that would be safe for the environment as well as for humans.In the current study,two major pure constituentsα-pinene andβ-caryophyllene were evaluated for their insecticidal potential against M.persicae using a fumigant toxicity assay.Furthermore,impact ofα-pinene andβ-caryophyllene on expression of five different genes,e.g.,HSP 60,FPPS I,OSD,TOL and ANT responsible for reproduction,dispersion,and growth of M.persicae has also been investigated.To perform fumigant toxicity assay,five different concentrations(3.5,4,4.5,5 and 6μL L−1)ofα-pinene andβ-caryophyllene were prepared.Lethal concentration(LC)was calculated,and gene expression studies were executed through qRT PCR at LC30 ofα-pinene andβ-caryophyllene.Both constituents demonstrated excellent fumigant toxicity effects against M.persicae at all five concentrations.However,α-pinene shows significantly better results(98%)as compared toβ-caryophyllene(80%)after 72 h at 6μL L−1 of dose.The highest upregulation in expression was demonstrated at LC30 dose ofα-pinene in five in three out of five genes understudy(TOL,ANT,and FPPS I).Conversely,two genes HSP 60 and OSD demonstrated downregulation at LC30 dose ofβ-caryophyllene.Conclusively,our results highlighted the promising insecticidal potential of both compoundsα-pinene andβ-caryophylleneby interfering with the reproduction and development related processes in M.persicae,allowing us to recommend the phytoconstituents under investigation as an ecofriendly alternative to synthetic insecticides.

Extraction Process of Zhuang Medicine Fumigation Lotion

[Objectives]To establish the extraction process and quality standard method of Zhuang medicine fumigation lotion.[Methods]The orthogonal design method was employed to optimize the water extraction process with the amount of water added,decocting time and extraction times as factors,and syringin content and dry extract yield as indexes.The content of syringin was determined by high performance liquid chromatography.[Results]The best water extraction process was:soaking in water for 1 h,decocting twice,added 10 times the amount of water each time,decocting for 1 h.The average content of syringin in 3 batches was 0.98 mg/g,and the average dry extract yield was 26.07%.[Conclusions]The project adopts water extraction method to prepare Zhuang medicine fumigation lotion,which has the characteristics of high efficiency and suitable for large-scale production.The quality control method is reliable,rapid and accurate,and can effectively control the quality of the lotion.

储藏物害虫嗜卷书虱对DDVP熏蒸的行为反应与致死剂量

1 引言 嗜卷书虱(Liposcelis bostrychophila)属啮虫目虱啮科.其体形微小,食性复杂.栖息场地多在粮食仓库及食品加工厂、图书馆、标本馆等地.大量发生时可造成严重损失,传播微生物,并以其尸体、排泄物等污染储藏的粮食和其它储藏物品[7].王进军等[15]调查发现,在我国"双低"和"三低"贮粮的粮仓中.书虱已成为优势种群,对贮粮安全构成了威胁.

Chemical Composition and Bioactivity of Lippia adoensis Hochst ex.Walp(Verneneaceae) Leaf Essential Oil Against Callosobruchus maculatus Fabricius(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Essential oil （EO） of Nigeria-grown Lippia adoensis leaf was analyzed using gas chromatography mass spectrometry （GCMS） and its fumigant and repellent properties against Callosobruchus maculatus were evaluated. Sixteen compounds predominated by monoterpenes were identified. The major compounds were Eucalyptol （28.36%）, α-Terpineol （25.99%）, γ-Terpinene （15.24%）, α-Pinene （5.08%）, 1H-Cyclopropa[a]naphthalene （4.25%） and 1, 3, 6, 10-Dodeeatetraene （3.74%）. Percentage mortality due to fumigant toxicity was dose- and exposure period-dependent. One hour after treatment （HAT）, application of L. adoensis leaf EO at 107 μL· L^-1 air caused significantly （p〈0.05） higher mortality （50.00%） than 0.00% mortality observed at 0-53 μL· L^-1 air, but not significantly （p〉0.05） different from 22.50% observed in 80 μL· L^-1 air. At 3 HAT, application ofL. adoensis EO at 80 μL· L^-1 air caused significantly higher mortality （90.00 %） than mortality observed at 0 μL· L^-1 air. At 6 HAT, application of L. adoensis EO at 53-107 μL· L^-1 air caused significantly higher mortality （100.00 %） than that was observed in the control. The same trend was observed at 12 HAT where 100 % mortality observed in 27-107 μL· L^-1 air was significantly greater than 13.33 % observed in the control. At 3 HAT, percentage repellence was significantly （p〈0.05） affected by doses. Application of EO at 10-30 μL· cm^2 caused class V repellence （86.67%-100%） compared with the control which caused class I repellence （0-20%）.

Action modes of Aloe vera L. extracts against <i>Tetranychus cinnabarinus</i>Boisduval (Acarina: Tetranychidae)

Objective: This paper mainly determined the action modes of extract of Aloe vera L. against Tetranychus cinnabarinus Boisduval. Methods: The different action modes, contact action, repellent, fumigant, and oviposition inhibition property of the acetone extract of Aloe vera L. leaf against the carmine spider mite Tetranychus cinnabaribus (Boisduval) (Acarina: Tetranychidae) were investigated at 26°C ± 1°C, 75% - 80% relative humidity, and 14:10 light: day cycle in the laboratory. Results: Based on the established toxicity regression line of the Aloe vera L. acetone extract against female adult mites, the median lethal concentrations (LC50) were 0.836 and 0.167 mg/mL for 48 and 72 h, respectively. With processing time increased, the contact acaricidal activity increased and the repellent activity gradually decreased. The main modes of action of the extract against female adult mites were contact and repellent, and preferable effects were observed on adult mites. These results indicate that A. vera L. extract contains acaricidal and repellent bioactive components that may be useful in future control of the phytophagous mites.

Anaerobic soil disinfestation:A chemical-independent approach to pre-plant control of plant pathogens

Due to increasing regulations and restrictions, there is an urgent need to develop effective alternatives to chemical-dependent fumigation control of soilborne pests and pathogens. Anaerobic soil disinfestation （ASD） is one such alternative showing great promise for use in the control of soilborne pathogens and pests. This method involves the application of a carbon source, irrigation to field capacity, and covering the soil with a plastic tarp. While the mechanisms of ASD are not completely understood, they appear to be a combination of changes in the soil microbial community composition, production of volatile organic compounds, and the generation of lethal anaerobic conditions. The variety of materials and options for ASD application, including carbon sources, soil temperature, and plastic tarp type, influence the efficacy of pathogen sup- pression and disease control. Currently, both dry （e.g., rice bran） and liquid （e.g., ethanol） carbon sources are commonly used, but with different results depending on environmental conditions. While solarization is not an essential component of ASD, it can enhance efficacy. Understanding the mechanisms that mediate biological changes occurring in the soil during ASD will facilitate our ability to increase ASD efficacy while enhancing its commercial viability.

Evaluation of Vaporized Hydrogen Peroxide Fumigation as a Method for the Bio-decontamination of the High Efficiency Particulate Air Filter Unit

Objective To evaluate the performance of vaporized hydrogen peroxide （VHP） for the bio-decontamination of the high efficiency particulate air （HEPA） filter unit. Methods Self-made or commercially available bioindicators were placed at designated locations in the HEPA filter unit under VHP fumigation. The spores on coupons were then extracted by 0.5 h submergence in eluent followed by 200- time violent knocks. Results Due to the presence of HEPA filter in the box, spore recovery from coupons placed at the bottom of the filter downstream was significantly higher than that from coupons placed at the other locations. The gap of decontamination efficiency between the top and the bottom of the filter downstream became narrower with the exposure time extended. The decontamination efficiency of the bottom of the filter downstream only improved gently with the injection rate of H202 increased and the decontamination efficiency decreased instead when the injection rate exceeded 2.5 g/min. The commercially available bioindicators were competent to indicate the disinfection efficiency of VHP for the HEPA filter unit. Conclusion The HEPA filter unit is more difficult than common enclosure to decontaminate using VHP fumigation. Complete decontamination can be achieved by extending fumigation time. VHP fumigation can be applied for in-situ biodecontamination of the HEPA filter unit as an alternative method to formaldehyde fumigation.

Expression of S100B during the innate immune of corneal epithelium against fungi invasion

AIM： To explore the expression of SIOOB in corneal epithelial cells under ,Aspergillus stimulation both in vivo and in vitro. METHODS： Immortalized human corneal epithelial cells （HCECs） were exposed to inactive #lsperg///us fumigatus （A. fumigatus） conidia at 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, and 24h respectively. The corneas of Wistar rats were exposed to active A. fumigatus at 0, 12, 24, 48h and the normal rat corneas were used for normal control. The mRNA level of S100B was evaluated by real time quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction （qRT-PCR）. Sl00B protein expression in cornea epithelium was detected by immunohistochemical/immunocytochemical staining （IHC/ICC）. RESULTS： Histopathology revealed a significant inflammatory cell infiltration in fungal keratitis human and rat cornea. Corneal epithelial cells didn＇t express or rarely express S100B at baseline. A. fumigatus significantly induced S100B mRNA expression in cultured corneal epithelial cells in a time depended manner in vitro the mRNA began to rise significantly at 8h in vitro （P〈0.05） and continue to rise as time prolonged （P〈0.01）. in vivo S100B mRNA level was low in the normal corneas. However, it was increased in keratitis corneas from 12h after infection （P〈0.05） and reached to a peak at 24h （P〈0.001）. Immunochemistry revealed an obvious staining in fungal keratitis corneas as well as immortalized HCECs compared to the normal ones respectively, indicating an increased expression of SlOOB protein. CONCLUSION： S100B exists in corneal epithelial cells and is over-expressed under A. fumigatus stimulation. Sl00B may play an important role in the innate immune response of the corneal epithelium during A. fumigatus infection.

Application of the combination of 1,3-dichloropropene and dimethyl disulfide by soil injection or chemigation: effects against soilborne pests in cucumber in China

The combination of 1,3-dichloropropene＋dimethyl disulfide （1,3-D＋DMDS）, which forms a pre-plant soil fumigant, can provide a substitute for the environmentally unfriendly methyl bromide （MB）. Three greenhouse trials were performed to evaluate the root-knot nematode and soilborne fungi control efficacy in the suburbs of Beijing in China in 2010-2014. Randomized blocks with three replicates were designed in each trial. The combination of 1,3-D＋DMDS （10＋30 g m-2） significantly controlled Meloidogyne incognita, effectively suppressed the infestation of Fusarium oxysporum and Phytophthora spp., and successfully provided high commercial fruit yields （equal to MB but higher than 1,3-D or DMDS）. The fumigant soil treatments were significantly better than the untreated controls. These results indicate that 1,3-D＋DMDS soil treatments can be applied by soil injection or chemigation as a promising MB alternative against soilborne pests in cucumber in China.

Impact of Oriental Fruit Fly Postharvest Treatments on Avocado

The detection in August 2015 of the Oriental Fruit Fly (Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel, Diptera: Tephritidae) in the Redland area in Miami-Dade County, Florida triggered a quarantine that restricted the movement of fruit fly host material in an approximately 99-square mile (256-square kilometer) area. The quarantine affected 4000 acres of fruit bearing commercial avocado groves. Approved post-harvest treatments for B. dorsalis and avocado included in the USDA Treatment Manual were acceptable for immediate certification and movement of fresh avocados from the quarantine area. However, it was unknown if Florida avocados would meet quality standards (US combination grade) after the treatments. Three post-harvest treatments that combine methyl bromide fumigation and cold storage periods were tested on six avocado varieties from Florida. The treatments differed in the durations of the fumigation and cold treatment periods. A seven day transit period at 8.3°C (47°F) was added to account for the time when the fruit leaves the packing house until it is sold by retailers. None of the six varieties had met the US combination grade after the treatments and transit period. Treated fruit exhibited both internal (pulp) and external (skin) damage. Damage was attributed to the fumigation component of the treatment, but the six varieties tolerated the cold portion of the treatment. Damage by fumigation ranged from 26% - 100%. In general, the longer the fumigation period the worse the effect. The need for alternative post-harvest treatments for Florida avocados is discussed.

Efficacy of combining traditional Chinese medicine fumigation with Western medicine for diabetic peripheral neuropathy:A systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective:A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of supplementing Western medicine with Traditional Chinese medicine(TCM)fumigation in patients with diabetic peripheral neuropathy.Methods:The China Biomedical Literature,Chinese full-text periodical,China National Knowledge Infrastructure,WanFang,PubMed,EMbase,and Cochrane Library databases were searched for relevant randomized controlled trials published from inception through May 2015.The methodological quality of eligible studies was evaluated using the Cochrane Risk Bias Assessment tool,and summarized effects were calculated using Reviewer Manager 5.1 software.Subgroup analysis was conducted based on the duration of intervention.Results:The initial search identified 312 relevant studies,of which 40 randomized controlled trials involving 3497 patients were eligible for analysis.The results indicated that TCM fumigation significantly improved the curative effects[risk ratio(RR)=1.34,95%CI(confidence interval):1.29e1.39],common peroneal motor nerve conduction velocity[standard mean difference(SMD)=2.93,95%CI:2.26e3.61],common peroneal sensory nerve conduction velocity(SMD=2.23,95%CI:1.46e3.01),and plasma viscosity(SMD=1.02,95%CI:1.35e0.69)compared to Western medicine alone(all p<0.01).A subgroup analysis indicated that the curative effects were significant after 15 days(RR=1.31,95%CI:1.21e1.42),30 days(RR=1.33,95%CI:1.26e1.40),and 60 days(RR=1.50,95%CI:1.32e1.71)of combined treatment(all p<0.01).

Early expression of PTX3 in Aspergillus fumigatus infected rat cornea

AIM： To investigate the expression of pentraxin 3（PTX3） in rat corneal epithelium at the early stage of Aspergillus fumigatus（A. fumigatus） infection. METHODS： A total of 50 Wistar rats were randomly divided into control group, Sham group and experimental group（fungal keratitis group, FK group）. The right eye was chosen as the experiment one and infected by A. fumigatus. Rats were executed at 8, 16 and 24 h after the experimental models being established. Corneal epithelia were collected to assess the expression of PTX3 by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction（q RT-PCR） and Western blot analysis. RESULTS： Corneal inflammation scores increased as infection prolonged（P〈0.05, P〈0.001）. PTX3 m RNA expression was low in normal and Sham group rats＇ corneas. Level of PTX3 m RNA in infected rat cornea was elevated at 8 h and peaked at 16 h. The difference was significant compared with control group（P〈0.001）. Western blot analysis also showed a significant increase of PTX3 protein in experimental group at 8 h and peaked at 16 h（P〈0.001）. The synchronous expression of control group and experimental group were also in significant difference（P〈0.001）. CONCLUSION： PTX3 exists in cornea epithelium and is significantly increased after A. fumigatus infection. PTX3 plays an important role in the early stage of cornea innate immunity against A. fumigatus.

Fungitoxicity of Methyl Iodide, Sulfuryl Fluoride, and Methyl Bromide to Ceratocystis fagacearum in Red Oak, Maple, Poplar, Birch and Pine Wood

The threat of wood-inhabiting fungi to American hardwood forests, lumber industries, and tourism has enormous eco-nomic significance, and the aesthetic and dollar values of properties are potentially disastrous. The efficacy of methyl iodide (MeI) and sulfuryl fluoride (SF) for eradicating wood-inhabiting fungus, Ceratocystis fagacearum was assessed in wood blocks of birch, maple, poplar and red pine based on in-vitro experiments. In a series of replicated controlled experiments, wood blocks were inoculated with a 1g macerated mycelium/spores mixture of C. fagacearum and fumigated with 160 and 240 g/m3 of MeI, SF and methyl bromide (MeBr) as control) for 24, 48, and 72 hours. Analysis of variance showed that fumigant types, fumigant concentrations, and exposure time as well as their interactions (C x T) had an effect on C. fagacearum recovery on tested wood species. Colonization of birch, maple, red pine, and poplar by C. fagacearum was significantly greater in non-fumigated samples than fumigated samples. C. fagacearum was greatly inhibited by MeI than SF in all wood species tested. Overall, the C x T products of ≤ 4.108 g-h/m3 for MeI and ≤ 8.755 g-h/m3 for SF were not effective in killing the fungus. These results suggest that longer treatment exposure time might achieve the goal of complete eradication of C. fagacearum and imply that MeI performed as well as MeBr in killing the fungus in some wood species by exposure time combination. Overall, MeI was most effective in killing the fungus than SF under the conditions of this study with potential implications for quarantine use.

Selection of Landscape Tree Species of Tolerant to Sulfur Dioxide Pollution in Subtropical China

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a major air pollutant, especially in developing countries. Many trees are seriously impaired by SO2, while other species can mitigate air pollution by absorbing this gas. Planting appropriate tree species near industrial complexes is critical for aesthetic value and pollution mitigation. In this study, six landscape tree species typical of a subtropical area were investigated for their tolerance of SO2: Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl., Ilex rotunda Thunb., Lysidice rhodostegia Hance, Ceiba insignis (Kunth) P. E. Gibbs & Semir, Cassia surattensis Burm. f., and Michelia chapensis Dandy. We measured net photosynthesis rate, stomatal conductance, leaf sulfur content, relative water content, relative proline content, and other parameters under 1.31 mg·m-3 SO2 fumigation for eight days. The results revealed that the six species differed in their biochemical characteristics under SO2 stress. Based on these data, the most appropriate species for planting in SO2 polluted areas was I. rotunda, because it grew normally under SO2 stress and could absorb SO2.

Nitrogen Dioxide Fumigation for Microbial Control on Unshelled Peanuts*

Stored peanuts often need treatments to control microbial infections as well as insects to maintain postharvest quality. Nitric oxide (NO) is a recently discovered fumigant for postharvest pest control. NO fumigation must be conducted under ultralow oxygen condition to preserve NO and always contains NO2 due to NO reaction with oxygen and NO2 has antimicrobial property. Therefore, NO fumigation has potential to control both pests and pathogens. In this study, we evaluated antimicrobial effects of NO2 fumigation on unpasteurized unshelled peanuts. Peanuts were fumigated with 0.3%, 1.0%, and 3.0% NO2 for three days at 25˚C by injecting NO gas into glass jars to react with O2 in the atmosphere. After fumigation, wash-off microbial samples were collected from intact peanut samples and, then, cracked open peanut samples with non-selective tryptic soy broth medium. The wash-off samples were then diluted with both the non-selective medium and a fungal-selective potato dextrose broth medium and were tested on GreenLight™ rapid enumeration test based on oxygen depletion on culture medium. All three NO2 fumigation treatments showed significant antibacterial and antifungal effects on intact peanuts as well as on cracked peanuts with complete inhibition with 3.0% NO2. Fumigation did not have obvious effects on appearance of skinned peanut kernels. These results suggested that NO2 fumigation has potential to control microbes on stored products, and NO fumigation with the combination of NO and NO2 has potential to control both insects and microbes on stored products.