Inter-layer interference for multi-layered tight gas reservoir in the absence and presence of movable water

Due to the dissimilarity among different producing layers,the influences of inter-layer interference on the production performance of a multi-layer gas reservoir are possible.However,systematic studies of inter-layer interference for tight gas reservoirs are really limited,especially for those reservoirs in the presence of water.In this work,five types of possible inter-layer interferences,including both absence and presence of water,are identified for commingled production of tight gas reservoirs.Subsequently,a series of reservoir-scale and pore-scale numerical simulations are conducted to quantify the degree of influence of each type of interference.Consistent field evidence from the Yan'an tight gas reservoir(Ordos Basin,China)is found to support the simulation results.Additionally,suggestions are proposed to mitigate the potential inter-layer interferences.The results indicate that,in the absence of water,commingled production is favorable in two situations:when there is a difference in physical properties and when there is a difference in the pressure system of each layer.For reservoirs with a multi-pressure system,the backflow phenomenon,which significantly influences the production performance,only occurs under extreme conditions(such as very low production rates or well shut-in periods).When water is introduced into the multi-layer system,inter-layer interference becomes nearly inevitable.Perforating both the gas-rich layer and water-rich layer for commingled production is not desirable,as it can trigger water invasion from the water-rich layer into the gas-rich layer.The gas-rich layer might also be interfered with by water from the neighboring unperforated water-rich layer,where the water might break the barrier(eg weak joint surface,cement in fractures)between the two layers and migrate into the gas-rich layer.Additionally,the gas-rich layer could possibly be interfered with by water that accumulates at the bottom of the wellbore due to gravitational differentiation during shut-in operations.

Microscopic experiment on efficient construction of underground gas storages converted from water-invaded gas reservoirs

Based on the microfluidic technology,a microscopic visualization model was used to simulate the gas injection process in the initial construction stage and the bottom water invasion/gas injection process in the cyclical injection-production stage of the underground gas storage(UGS)rebuilt from water-invaded gas reservoirs.Through analysis of the gas-liquid contact stabilization mechanism,flow and occurrence,the optimal control method for lifecycle efficient operation of UGS was explored.The results show that in the initial construction stage of UGS,the action of gravity should be fully utilized by regulating the gas injection rate,so as to ensure the macroscopically stable migration of the gas-liquid contact,and greatly improve the gas sweeping capacity,providing a large pore space for gas storage in the subsequent cyclical injection-production stage.In the cyclical injection-production stage of UGS,a constant gas storage and production rate leads to a low pore space utilization.Gradually increasing the gas storage and production rate,that is,transitioning from small volume to large volume,can continuously break the hydraulic equilibrium of the remaining fluid in the porous media,which then expands the pore space and flow channels.This is conducive to the expansion of UGS capacity and efficiency for purpose of peak shaving and supply guarantee.

Gas-Water Production of a Continental Tight-Sandstone Gas Reservoir under Different Fracturing Conditions

A numerical model of hydraulic fracture propagation is introduced for a representative reservoir(Yuanba continental tight sandstone gas reservoir in Northeast Sichuan).Different parameters are considered,i.e.,the interlayer stress difference,the fracturing discharge rate and the fracturing fluid viscosity.The results show that these factors affect the gas and water production by influencing the fracture size.The interlayer stress difference can effectively control the fracture height.The greater the stress difference,the smaller the dimensionless reconstruction volume of the reservoir,while the flowback rate and gas production are lower.A large displacement fracturing construction increases the fracture-forming efficiency and expands the fracture size.The larger the displacement of fracturing construction,the larger the dimensionless reconstruction volume of the reservoir,and the higher the fracture-forming efficiency of fracturing fluid,the flowback rate,and the gas production.Low viscosity fracturing fluid is suitable for long fractures,while high viscosity fracturing fluid is suitable for wide fractures.With an increase in the fracturing fluid viscosity,the dimensionless reconstruction volume and flowback rate of the reservoir display a non-monotonic behavior,however,their changes are relatively small.

AHFO-based soil water content sensing technology considering soil-sensor thermal contact resistance

The actively heated fiber-optic(AHFO)technology has become emerged as a research focus due to its advantages of distributed,real-time measurement and good durability.These attributes have led to the gradual application of AHFO technology to the water content measurement of in situ soil.However,all existing in situ applications of AHFO technology fail to consider the effect of soilesensor contact quality on water content measurements,limiting potential for the wider application of AHFO technology.To address this issue,the authors propose a method for determining the soilesensor thermal contact resistance based on the principle of an infinite cylindrical heat source.This is then used to establish an AHFO water content measurement technology that considers the thermal contact resistance.The reliability and validity of the new measurement technology are explored through a laboratory test and a field case study,and the spatial-temporal evolution of the soil water content in the case is revealed.The results demonstrate that method for determining the soilesensor thermal contact resistance is highly effective and applicable to all types of soils.This method requires only the moisture content,dry density,and thermal response of the in situ soil to be obtained.In the field case,the measurement error of soil water content between the AHFO method,which takes into account the thermal contact resistance,and the neutron scattering method is only 0.011.The water content of in situ soil exhibits a seasonal variation,with an increase in spring and autumn and a decrease in summer and winter.Furthermore,the response of shallow soils to precipitation and evaporation is significant.These findings contribute to the enhancement of the accuracy of the AHFO technology in the measurement of the water content of in situ soils,thereby facilitating the dissemination and utilization of this technology.

Rate transient analysis methods for water-producing gas wells in tight reservoirs with mobile water

Tight gas reservoirs with mobile water exhibit multi-phase flow and high stress sensitivity.Accurately analyzing the reservoir and well parameters using conventional single-phase rate transient analysis methods proves challenging.This study introduces novel rate transient analysis methods incorporating evaluation processes based on the conventional flowing material balance method and the Blasingame type-curve method to examine fractured gas wells producing water.By positing a gas-water two-phase equivalent homogenous phase that considers characteristics of mobile water,gas,and high stress sensitivity,the conventional single-phase rate transient analysis methods can be applied by integrating the phase's characteristics and defining the phase's normalized parameters and material balance pseudotime.The rate transient analysis methods based on the equivalent homogenous phase can be used to quantitatively assess the parameters of wells and gas reservoirs,such as original gas-in-place,fracture half-length,reservoir permeability,and well drainage radius.This facilitates the analysis of production dynamics of fractured wells and well-controlled areas,subsequently aiding in locating residual gas and guiding the configuration of well patterns.The specific evaluation processes are detailed.Additionally,a numerical simulation mechanism model was constructed to verify the reliability of the developed methods.The methods introduced have been successfully implemented in field water-producing gas wells within tight gas reservoirs containing mobile water.

Shale gas transport in nanopores with mobile water films and water bridge

Gas flow properties in nanopores are significantly determined by the flow patterns. Slug flow pattern is a potential water–gas two phase flow pattern, in which gas molecules flow in form of gas slugs and water molecules separate gas slugs. Considering water slippage, a portion of water molecules accumulates at the wall with lower mobility, while the remaining water molecules take the shape of a water bridge. Adopting foam apparent viscosity model to represent slug rheological behavior, how water bridge disturbs on gas flow capacity is estimated. The results are compared with the water–gas two phase flow model that assumes annular flow pattern as well as the single gas flow model without the consideration of water. The comparison illustrates that gas molecular movement is significantly hindered by flow space reduction and loss of gas slippage. The impact from water phase of slug flow pattern is more significant than that of annular flow pattern on gas flow capacity. It is discovered that larger nanopores improve gas flow capacity while maintaining bulk water layer thickness and increasing water bridge thickness tend to reduce gas transport ability. A better understanding of the structure and transport of water and gas molecules is conducive to figure out the specific gas–water flow behavior and predict shale gas production.

For more and purer hydrogen-the progress and challenges in water gas shift reaction

The water gas shift(WGS) reaction is a standard reaction that is widely used in industrial hydrogen production and removal of carbon monoxide. The improved catalytic performance of WGS reaction also contributes to ammonia synthesis and other reactions. Advanced catalysts have been developed for both high and low-temperature reactions and are widely used in industry. In recent years, supported metal nanoparticle catalysts have been researched due to their high metal utilization. Low-temperature catalysts have shown promising results, including high selectivity, high shift rates, and higher activity potential. Additionally, significant progress has been made in removing trace CO through the redox reaction in electrolytic cell. This paper reviews the development of WGS reaction catalysts, including the reaction mechanism, catalyst design, and innovative research methods. The catalyst plays a crucial role in the WGS reaction, and this paper provides an instant of catalyst design under different conditions. The progress of catalysts is closely related to the development of advanced characterization techniques.Furthermore, modifying the catalyst surface to enhance activity and significantly increase reaction kinetics is a current research direction. This review goals to stimulate a better understanding of catalyst design, performance optimization, and driving mechanisms, leading to further progress in this field.

Permeability evolution and gas flow in wet coal under non-equilibrium state:Considering both water swelling and process-based gas swelling

Accurate knowledge of gas flow within the reservoir and related controlling factors will be important for enhancing the production of coal bed methane.At present,most studies focused on the permeability evolution of dry coal under gas adsorption equilibrium,gas flow and gas diffusion within wet coal under the generally non-equilibrium state are often ignored in the process of gas recovery.In this study,an improved apparent permeability model is proposed which accommodates the water and gas adsorption,stress dependence,water film thickness and gas flow regimes.In the process of modeling,the water adsorption is only affected by water content while the gas adsorption is time and water content dependent;based on poroelastic mechanics,the effective fracture aperture and effective pore radius are derived;and then the variation in water film thickness for different pore types under the effect of water content,stress and adsorption swelling are modeled;the flow regimes are considered based on Beskok’s model.Further,after validation with experimental data,the proposed model was applied to numerical simulations to investigate the evolution of permeability-related factors under the effect of different water contents.The gas flow in wet coal under the non-equilibrium state is explicitly revealed.

Self-sealing of fractures in indurated claystones measured by water and gas flow

Self-sealing of fractures in the indurated Callovo-Oxfordian(COX)and Opalinus(OPA)claystones,which are considered as host rocks for disposal of radioactive waste,was investigated on artificially fractured samples.The samples were extracted from four lithological facies relatively rich in clay mineral,carbonate and quartz,respectively.The self-sealing of fractures was measured by fracture closure,water permeability variation,gas penetration,and recovery of gas-induced pathways.Most of the fractured samples exhibited a dramatic reduction inwater permeability to low levels that is close to that of intact rock,depending on their mineralogical composition,fracture intensity,confining stress,and load duration.The self-sealing capacity of the clay-rich samples is higher than that of the carbonate-rich and sandy ones.Significant effects of sample size and fracture intensity were identified.The sealed fractures become gas-tight for certain in-jection pressures.However,the measured gas breakthrough pressures are still lower than the confining stresses.The gas-induced pathways can recover when contacting water.These important findings imply that fractures in such indurated claystones can effectively recover to hinder water transport but allow gas release under relatively low pressures without compromising the rock integrity.

Automatic segmentation of gas plumes from multibeam water column images using a U-shape network

Cold seeps are widely developed on the seabed of continental margins and can form gas plumes due to the upward migration of methane-rich fluids.The detection and automatic segmentation of gas plumes are of great significance in locating and studying the cold seep system that is usually accompanied by hydrate layers in the subsurface.A multibeam echo-sounder system(MBES)can record the complete backscatter intensity of the water column,and it is one of the most effective means for detecting cold seeps.However,the gas plumes recorded in multibeam water column images(WCI)are usually blurred due to the interference of the complicated water environment and the sidelobes of the MBES,making it difficult to obtain the effective segmentation.Therefore,based on the existing UNet semantic segmentation network,this paper proposes an AP-UNet network combining the convolutional block attention module and the pyramid pooling module for the automatic segmentation and extraction of gas plumes.Comparative experiments are conducted among three traditional segmentation methods and two deep learning methods.The results show that the AP-UNet segmentation model can effectively suppress complicated water column noise interference.The segmentation precision,the Dice coefficient,and the recall rate of this model are 92.09%,92.00%,and 92.49%,respectively,which are 1.17%,2.10%,and 2.07%higher than the results of the UNet.

Quantitative research of the liquid film characteristics in upward vertical gas, oil and water flows

The study of liquid film characteristics in multiphase flow is a very important research topic, however,the characteristics of the liquid film around Taylor bubble structure in gas, oil and water three-phase flow are not clear. In the present study, a novel liquid film sensor is applied to measure the distributed signals of the liquid film in three-phase flow. Based on the liquid film signals, the liquid film characteristics including the structural characteristics and the nonlinear dynamics characteristics in three-phase flows are investigated for the first time. The structural characteristics including the proportion, the appearance frequency and the thickness of the liquid film are obtained and the influences of the liquid and gas superficial velocities and the oil content on them are investigated. To investigate the nonlinear dynamics characteristics of the liquid film with the changing flow conditions, the entropy analysis is introduced to successfully uncover and quantify the dynamic complexity of the liquid film behavior.

Progress and prospects of EOR technology in deep,massive sandstone reservoirs with a strong bottom-water drive

The Triassic massive sandstone reservoir in the Tahe oilfield has a strong bottom-water drive and is characterized by great burial depth,high temperature and salinity,a thin pay zone,and strong heterogeneity.At present,the water-cut is high in each block within the reservoir;some wells are at an ultrahigh water-cut stage.A lack of effective measures to control water-cut rise and stabilize oil production have necessitated the application of enhanced oil recovery(EOR)technology.This paper investigates the development and technological advances for oil reservoirs with strong edge/bottom-water drive globally,and compares their application to reservoirs with characteristics similar to the Tahe oilfield.Among the technological advances,gas injection from the top and along the direction of structural dip has been used to optimize the flow field in a typical bottom-water drive reservoir.Bottom-water coning is restrained by gas injection-assisted water control.In addition,increasing the lateral driving pressure differential improves the plane sweep efficiency which enhances oil recovery in turn.Gas injection technology in combination with technological measures like channeling prevention and blocking,and water plugging and profile control,can achieve better results in reservoir development.Gas flooding tests in the Tahe oilfield are of great significance to identifying which EOR technology is the most effective and has the potential of large-scale application for improving development of deep reservoirs with a strong bottomwater drive.

Syntheses and properties of associative acrylamide copolymers containing short hydrophobic chains used in a friction reducer for slick-water fracturing

Two allyldimethylalkyl quaternary ammonium salt(AQAS)monomers,N,N-dimethylallylphenylpropylammonium bromide(AQAS1)and N,N-dimethylallylnonylammonium bromide(AQAS2),were synthesized and used to prepare modified polyacrylamide materials.Two new drag reducers were synthesized from acrylamide(AM),sodium acrylate(Na AA)and a cationic modified monomer(AQAS1 or AQAS2)via aqueous solution polymerization,and the copolymers were named P(AM/Na AA/AQAS1)and P(AM/Na AA/AQAS2),respectively.The structures of the drag reduction agents were confirmed by IR and1H NMR spectroscopies.The molecular weight(Mw)of P(AM/Na AA/AQAS1)was 1.79×10^(6)g/mol.When the copolymer concentration was 1000 mg/L and the flow rate was 45 L/min,in fresh water the highest drag reduction rate was 75.8%,in 10,000 mg/L Na Cl solution the drag reduction rate decreased to 72.9%.The molecular weight of P(AM/Na AA/AQAS2)was 3.17×10^(6)g/mol.When the copolymer concentration was500 mg/L and the flow rate was 45 L/min,the drag reduction rate reached 75.2%,and in 10,000 mg/L Na Cl solution the drag reduction rate was 73.3%,decreased by approximately 1.9%.The drag reduction rate for partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide(HPAM)was also investigated,and the results showed that the drag reduction rates for 500 and 1000 mg/L HPAM solutions were merely 43.2%and 49.0%in brine,respectively.Compared with HPAM,both of the above copolymers presented better drag reduction capacities.

New insights into the deposition of natural gas hydrate on pipeline surfaces:A molecular dynamics simulation study

Natural gas hydrate(NGH)can cause pipeline blockages during the transportation of oil and gas under high pressures and low temperatures.Reducing hydrate adhesion on pipelines is viewed as an efficient way to prevent NGH blockages.Previous studies suggested the water film can greatly increase hydrate adhesion in gas-dominant system.Herein,by performing the molecular dynamics simulations,we find in water-dominant system,the water film plays different roles in hydrate deposition on Fe and its corrosion surfaces.Specifically,due to the strong affinity of water on Fe surface,the deposited hydrate cannot convert the adsorbed water into hydrate,thus,a water film exists.As water affinities decrease(Fe>Fe_(2)O_(3)>FeO>Fe_(3)O_(4)),adsorbed water would convert to amorphous hydrate on Fe_(2)O_(3)and form the ordered hydrate on FeO and Fe_(3)O_(4)after hydrate deposition.While absorbed water film converts to amorphous or to hydrate,the adhesion strength of hydrate continuously increases(Fe<Fe_(2)O_(3)<FeO<Fe_(3)O_(4)).This is because the detachment of deposited hydrate prefers to occur at soft region of liquid layer,the process of which becomes harder as liquid layer vanishes.As a result,contrary to gas-dominant system,the water film plays the weakening roles on hydrate adhesion in water-dominant system.Overall,our results can help to better understand the hydrate deposition mechanisms on Fe and its corrosion surfaces and suggest hydrate deposition can be adjusted by changing water affinities on pipeline surfaces.

Adaptability of Development Methods for Offshore Gas Cap Edge Water Reservoirs under Different Permeability Levels

The BZ 34-1 oilfield is a typical gas cap edge water reservoir in the Bohai oilfield. The main characteristics of the oilfield were multi-phase sand body stacking and the sand body was composed of three parts: gas cap, oil reservoir, and edge water. The actual production site results show that the permeability difference of multi-layer sand bodies has a serious impact on the development effect. This article establishes a typical reservoir model numerical model based on the total recovery degree of the reservoir and the recovery degree of each layer, and analyzes the impact of permeability gradient. As the permeability gradient increases, the total recovery degree of all four well patterns decreases, and the total recovery degree gradually decreases. The recovery degree of low permeability layers gradually decreases, and the recovery degree of high permeability layers gradually increases. As the permeability gradient increases, the degree of recovery gradually decreases under different water contents. As the permeability gradient increases, the reduction rate of remaining oil saturation in low permeability layers is slower, while the reduction rate of remaining oil saturation in high permeability layers was faster. By analyzing the impact of permeability gradient on the development effect of oil fields, we could further deepen our understanding of gas cap edge water reservoirs and guide the development of this type of oil field.

Purification of Produced Water from a Sour Oilfield in South Kuwait. 1. Oil-Water Separation and Industrial Salt Production

Produced water from an oil extraction site in South Kuwait was sampled after primary oil – water separation had been carried out. The produced water was filtered through a mixture of activated charcoal and esterified cellulosic material gained from spent coffee grounds as a tertiary adsorption treatment. The earth-alkaline metal ions and heavy metals were separated from the de-oiled produced water by addition of either sodium or potassium hydroxide in the presence of carbon dioxide or by direct addition of solid sodium carbonate. The resulting filtrate gave salt of industrial purity upon selective crystallization on evaporation.

Purification of Produced Water from a Sour Oilfield in South Kuwait. 2. Oil-Water Separation and Crystallization of Calcium Carbonate

Oil-water separation for produced water (PW) originating from an oil extraction site in South Kuwait was carried out using bleached, esterified cellulosic material from used coffee grounds. Thereafter, earth-alkaline metal ions, specifically calcium ions, of the de-oiled PW were removed by precipitation with sodium carbonate to give access to pure sodium chloride as industrial salt from the remaining PW. While the purity of the precipitated calcium carbonate (CaCO3) depends on the precipitation conditions, CaCO3 of up to 95.48% purity can be obtained, which makes it a salable product. The precipitation of CaCO3 decreases the amount of calcium ions in PW from 11,300 ppm to 84 ppm.

Review on the Impact of Climate Change on Great Lakes Region’s Agriculture and Water Resources

This study investigates the multifaceted impacts of climate change on the Midwest region of the United States, particularly the rising temperatures and precipitation brought about by hot weather activities and technological advances since the 19th century. From 1900 to 2010, temperatures in the Midwest rose by an average of 1.5 degrees Fahrenheit, which would also lead to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions. Precipitation is also expected to increase due to increased storm activity and changes in regional weather patterns. This paper explores the impact of these changes on urban and agricultural areas. In urban areas such as the city of Chicago, runoff from the increasing impervious surface areas poses challenges to the drainage system, and agriculture areas are challenged by soil erosion, nutrient loss, and fewer planting days due to excessive rainfall. Sustainable solutions such as no-till agriculture and the creation of grassland zones are discussed. Using historical data, recent climate studies and projections, the paper Outlines ways to enhance the Midwest’s ecology and resilience to climate change.

Simulation study on combustion system of tankless gas water heater

This paper simulates the combustion system of a regular tankless gas water heater under different static pressure conditions.The simulation results are in accordance with the test results.It proves that the used physical and mathematical models are reasonable.The results show that the flame height and the excess air ratios depend on the system pressure drop but not on the absolute pressure at the combustion chamber.The pressure drop and the amount of combustion air have an inverse relationship with CO generation,and they also impact on the temperature and velocity fields.To reduce CO emission,a stronger fan is needed to provide extra pressure head to ensure that enough combustion air is introduced into the system.This study provides a useful research tool to develop products through computational fluid dynamic analysis and laboratory testing.

Underwater gas self-transportation along femtosecond laser-written open superhydrophobic surface microchannels(<100μm)for bubble/gas manipulation

Underwater transportation of bubbles and gases has essential applications in manipulating and using gas,but achieving this function at the microscopic level remains a significant challenge.Here,we report a strategy to self-transport gas in water along a laser-induced open superhydrophobic microchannel with a width less than 100μm.The femtosecond laser can directly write superhydrophobic and underwater superaerophilic microgrooves on the polytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE)surfaces.In water,the single laser-induced microgroove and water medium generate a hollow microchannel.When the microchannel connects two superhydrophobic regions in water,the gas spontaneously travels from the small region to the large area along this hollow microchannel.Gas self-transportation can be extended to laser-drilled microholes through a thin PTFE sheet,which can even achieve anti-buoyancy unidirectional penetration.The gas can overcome the bubble’s buoyance and spontaneously travel downward.The Laplace pressure difference drives the processes of spontaneous gas transportation and unidirectional bubble passage.We believe the property of gas self-transportation in the femtosecond laser-structured open superhydrophobic and underwater superaerophilic microgrooves/microholes has significant potential applications related to manipulating underwater gas.