Inequality of rural residents'income in China since the targeted poverty alleviation strategy:New trends,causes,and policy implications

Poverty and income inequality are problems faced by many countries including China.Since the implementation of Targeted Poverty Alleviation(TPA),absolute poverty has been eradicated,meanwhile,Chinese rural residents'income and inequality have experienced unprecedented new dynamics,but still,very few studies have focused on them.Hence,we attempt to examine the new trends in Chinese farmers'income inequality and to understand its causes during this period.We observe that China's urban-rural income ratio has been shrinking and the urban-rural inequality has been decreasing from 2014 to 2021.The reduction in the Theil index indicates a decrease in the regional inequality of farmers'income as well,and the decline in inter-regional inequality among eight economic zones contributes about 80%to increased equality.These new trends are caused by the fact that,with the TPA,the incomes of rural residents especially that in destitute areas,grew faster than that of urban residents and farmers in prosperous areas.The higher share of non-agricultural industry and agricultural mechanization level have significant positive impact on regional equality of farmers'income,while urban-rural dual structure has significant negative inhibitory effects.The lowest farmers'income and the highest inequality in the Northwest,and the slowest growth in the Northeast deserve more attention in rural Revitalization.From these findings,we propose four policy implications that would be applied to improve Chinese farmers'income equality,govern relative poverty,and achieve common prosperity in the post-poverty era.

Modern pollen-vegetation relationships along altitudinal vegetation belts in the Leigong Mountain of southwestern China

Understanding the distribution,dispersal,and correlation of modern pollen with vegetation in mountainous regions is essential for establishing accurate modern analogs for fossil pollen records.This study,conducted in Leigong Mountain on the YunnanGuizhou Plateau of southwestern China,involved the collection of 35 surface soil samples from diverse vegetation communities along an elevational gradient ranging from 1210 to 1875 meters.The results reveal a close correspondence between modern pollen assemblages and vegetation zones.Principal Component Analysis(PCA)results indicate that pollen assemblages can effectively distinguish between subtropical montane evergreen broad-leaved forest(SEBF)and subtropical montane deciduous broadleaved forest(SDBF).However,both SEBF and SDBF show significant overlap with subtropical montane evergreen-deciduous broad-leaved mixed forest(SEMF).Detrended Correspondence Analysis(DCA)results clearly distinguish the three vegetation zones,and the first axis of DCA shows a significant positive correlation with elevation(p<0.01,R=0.48).Discriminant Analysis(DA)successfully assigns 94.4%of the modern pollen samples to their respective vegetation zones.Pollen taxa such as Impatiens,Astertype,and Rosaceae exhibit significant indicative capabilities for the SEBF zone,effectively distinguishing this vegetation zone from others.Pinus and Alnus display overrepresentation in the Leigong Mountain region,while Quercus(D,deciduous-type)and Poaceae exhibit high representation in the SEBF zone.In the SEBF zone,both pollen diversity and richness are the lowest.Our study reveals the complex relationship between the richness and diversity of pollen and vegetation.The diversity and richness of tree and shrub pollen are found to be lower than those of the corresponding plants.The pollen-vegetation relationship elucidated in this study serves as a critical reference for reconstructing ancient environments from fossil pollen retrieved in this region.

Grazing intensity effects on the vegetation in desert rangelands of Southern Tunisia

Although the effects of non-grazing and heavy grazing on vegetation structure have been extensively studied in a wide range of ecosystems, the effects of moderate grazing on desert land are still largely unknown. Many management opportunities exist for increasing forage intake. In order to determine an optimal management method of desert rangelands with high heritage value, we examined the respective effects of heavy grazing, moderate grazing and non-grazing on total vegetation cover, species richness, the Shannon-Wiener diversity index and rangeland productivity. Sampling was done from 2010 to 2012 （from the second year after treatments were imposed） using permanent transects under different grazing intensities. While total vegetation cover, species richness, Shan- non-Wiener diversity index, species composition and primary production were significantly greater on the ungrazed site and significantly weaker on the heavily grazed site, in contrast, moderate grazing had no significant effect on total vegetation cover, species richness, Shannon diversity index, species composition and primary production. These studies suggest that desert rangelands plant communities in general lack response to moderate grazing disturbance, and if managed properly they can provide a valuable source of feed for livestock.

Comparison of woody species composition between rocky outcrops and nearby matrix vegetation on degraded karst hillslopes of Southwest China

Habitats with different features such as soil depth and soil/rock conditions can provide favorable environments for species with different requirements, while anthropogenic disturbances normally exert additional effects on species composition. However, specific studies have rarely been conducted in the degraded karst regions of Southwest China despite the high heterogeneity of karst habitats and past human disturbances. In this study, woody species richness and composition on rocky outcrops on a typical karst hillslope were investigated and compared with those of nearby matrices on shallow and rocky soil. Our results showed that matrix vegetation was more diverse in genera and species than vegetation on rocky outcrops. This might relate to the contrasting substrate features and different disturbance histories of these two habitats. Unlike the significant effect of slope on species richness of the matrix vegetation, rocky outcrops exhibited no significant differences between upper and lower slope positions, largely because their microhabitats were similar in different slope positions. Although the study area has been reforested naturally for about 30 years, woody species of the matrix vegetation were still dominated by pioneer shrub species. Rocky outcrops were dominated by late-successional tree species, which was primarily related to their isolated features and resistance to certain disturbances. Most of these late-successional species were not habitat endemics, indicating the possibility for their encroachment into surrounding the matrix. From this aspect, further studies will be necessary to identify and address the limiting factors for the encroachment of these late-successional species into the surrounding environment.

The Mode of Promoting Industrial Targeted Poverty Alleviation through Land Circulation in Western Mountainous Region of China——A Case Study of Luquan Yi and Miao Autonomous County in Yunnan Province

In the industrial targeted poverty alleviation,land circulation is a key process. Based on the national strategy of targeted poverty alleviation,this paper combined the industrial development of targeted poverty alleviation with land circulation. According to the field survey on the current situation of land circulation and promotion of the industrial poverty alleviation in the typical project area of Zhongping Village in Zhongping Town and Jiaowuying Village in Jiulong Town in Luquan Yi and Miao Autonomous County in Yunnan Province,located in the high mountain canyon area of Jinsha River in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in the west of China. This paper summarized and analyzed the organization and operation mechanism,basic practices and main results of the land circulation and promotion of industrial poverty alleviation model in the typical project area of the county. It also summarized the innovation and successful experience of the model,and then came up with measures to further promote the implementation of the model,so as to provide necessary reference for the implementation of land circulation and industrial targeted poverty alleviation for the poverty-stricken counties in Yunnan Province and similar provinces( cities,regions).

Advances in Studies about Rural Financial Poverty Alleviation from the Perspective of Targeted Poverty Alleviation

With the objective of building a well-off society in an all-round way reaching the decisive stage,poverty alleviation enters the final stage,and rural financial poverty alleviation is increasingly becoming a hot topic of various circles of society. In order to accelerate the poverty alleviation and provide references and recommendations for further development of theory and practice of financial poverty alleviation,this paper made an overview of the organization system,operation mechanism and service products of rural financial poverty alleviation,elaborated the development path of financial poverty alleviation,and came up with recommendations for financial poverty alleviation.

Floristic and structural analysis of the woodland vegetation around Dello Menna,Southeast Ethiopia

Floristic composition and vegetation structure were described for the woodland vegetation around Dello Menna, Bale zone, southeast Ethiopia. A total 50 （20 m ×20 m） quadrats were sampled to identify and describe plant community types, species diversity, richness and evenness and to relate the identified plant community types with some environ- mental factors and describe the population structure of woody plant species. In each quadrrat, data on species identity, abundance, height and Diameter at Breast Height （DBH） of woody plant species, altitude and slope were recorded. Vegetation classification was performed using PC - ORD software package. Sorensen＇s similarity coefficient was used to detect dissimilarities among communities. Shannon - Wiener diversity index, species richness and Shannon＇s evenness were computed to de- scribe species diversity of the plant community types. Results show that a total of 171 vascular plant species representing 53 families were re- corded. Fabaceae is the dominant family represented by 13 genera and 26 species （15%） followed by Asteraceae, Lamiaceae and Anacardiaceae with eight species each （4.6%）. Based on the results of vegetation classi- fication, three plant communities （Dalbergia microphylla community, Grewia bicolar- Acacia brevispica community, and Combretum molle- Combretum collinum community） are recognized and described. Species richness, diversity and evenness varied among the plant communities.Species richness and diversity exhibit a bell - shaped pattern along alti- tude. Species turn over among communities more or less follow altitud- inal gradients. Tukey＇s pairwise comparison of means among the plant community types shows significant variations in altitude, implying that altitude is one of the most important factors determining the distribution of plant communities. The community Dalbergia microphylla type exhibits the highest species richness and diversity. Analysis of population structure of the dominant species reveals various patterns. Future research directions and recommendations are suggested for the sustainable utilization.

Research on Strategies for the Development of Selenium-enriched Tea in Ankang City of Shaanxi Province in the Context of Targeted Poverty Alleviation

As an important symbol of agricultural and sideline products in Ankang City,selenium-enriched tea affects the development of regional agricultural and sideline industries.In this paper,the development status and problems of the selenium-enriched tea products of Ankang were analyzed in terms of capital,technology,management and sales mode.This research is of positive significance to the development of selenium-enriched products and other agricultural and sideline products of health value,and plays a very important role in promoting the cultivation of village-level characteristic industries and the effective realization of targeted poverty alleviation.

Species Richness, Diversity and Density of Understory Vegetation along Disturbance Gradients in the Himalayan Conifer Forest

We investigated whether species richness, diversity and density of understory herbaceous plants differed along logging(gap) and grazing(primarily by cattle) disturbance gradients, and sought to identify drivers of richness, diversity and density of understory vegetation of logged sites. A factorial experiment was conducted in the mixed conifer forest of Gidakom in Western Bhutan. Levels of the logging treatment included small(0.15 – 0.24 ha), medium(0.25 – 0.35 ha) and large(0.36 – 1.31 ha) gaps. The grazing treatment included grazed(primarily by cattle) and ungrazed(where herbivores were excluded by a fence) plots nested within each gap. Data were collected from 12 gaps(4 replicates at each level of logging) using the point intercept method. Shannon Weaver Diversity and Margalef's indices were used to estimate species diversity and describe species richness, respectively. Soil samples were analyzed for pH and nutrients. The interaction effect of logging and grazing was significant(p≤0.001) only on species diversity. Relative to ungrazed areas, species diversity was significantly higher(0.01≤p≤0.05) in medium grazed gaps. Under grazed conditions, soil P was negatively correlated with gap size and species diversity. While species diversity was positivelycorrelated(0.01≤p≤0.05) with soil N in grazed plots species richness was positively correlated(0.001≤p≤0.01) with soil N in ungrazed plots. Relative density of Yushania microphylla and Carex nubigena were higher under ungrazed conditions. Our study suggests that the combined effect of cattle grazing and logging results in higher species diversity of understory vegetation in medium and grazed gaps in mixed conifer forests of Bhutan,whereas increase or decrease in relative density of major species is determined primarily by the independent effects of grazing and logging. From management perspective, forest managers must refrain from creating large gaps to avoid loss of nutrients(mainly P and N), which may eventually affect tree regeneration. Managers intending to maintain understory vegetation diversity must consider the combined effects of grazing and logging, ensuring low to moderate grazing pressure.

Difference of Regional Benefits after Linking Newly-added Cropland Quotas with Amount of Land Used for Construction Based on Targeted Poverty Alleviation: A Case Study of Xinjiang

In order to explore the differences of projects on linking newly-added cropland quotas with the amount of land used for construction in targeted poverty alleviation in different rural areas,this paper selects the social,economic,cultural and ecological evaluation indexes,and introduces the AHP method,to measure the benefits before and after the implementation of the four typical projects on linking newly-added cropland quotas with the amount of land used for construction in Xinjiang. The results show that after the implementation of the project,the social,economic,cultural,ecological and comprehensive benefits of each region have been improved,but the benefits of regions with different economic levels are significantly different. This paper holds that the projects on linking newly-added cropland quotas with the amount of land used for construction in different regions should be considered from the ultimate goal before the establishment and implementation of the project,so as to realize the win-win situation between the urban-rural requisition-compensation balance and the targeted poverty alleviation in rural areas.

An Empirical Study on Targeted Poverty Alleviation of Chixi Village and Xiadang Village in Ningde City of Fujian Province

Chixi Village and Xiadang Village in Ningde City of Fujian Province were once famous poverty-stricken villages. Both of the villages are poor villages that General Secretary Xi Jinping has been paying attention to. The two villages have helped the poor get rid of poverty by infrastructure construction, ecological migration, and industrial development according to local conditions. However, the two villages have succeeded in the implementation of targeted poverty alleviation according to their own resource characteristics. The study shows that the poverty alleviation processes, poverty alleviation achievements and established future development trend of these two poor villages basically correspond to the trend of poverty alleviation policy in China in the past 30 years, reflect the process of “targeted poverty alleviation” work carried out in China’s rural areas to a certain extent, and has reference significance and theoretical significance for targeted poverty alleviation cases.

Significance,Path and Typical Cases of Integration of Grassroots Party Construction and Targeted Poverty Alleviation Team Construction in Colleges and Universities

The integration of party construction and poverty alleviation and development is an important form of achieving poverty alleviation in China. Based on the actual case of the integration of the party branch construction of the Institute of Targeted Poverty Alleviation and Development of Yunnan University of Finance and Economics and the construction of a third-party evaluation team for targeted poverty alleviation,this paper elaborated the practical significance and integration path design of the grassroots party construction and targeted poverty alleviation thirdparty evaluation team construction in colleges and universities. Besides,it analyzed the typical case of the party branch in the process of building the party branch of the ' double leader' teachers in the national colleges and universities,and vigorously implementing the development of the party branch construction and the third-party evaluation team for targeted poverty alleviation,and promoting double integration and double promotion. Finally,it came up with recommendations for further strengthening the development of the party branch construction and the thirdparty evaluation team for targeted poverty alleviation( including strengthening the party construction responsibility,promoting the solid foundation,promoting deep integration,strengthening mutual promotion,gathering poverty alleviation talents,and strengthen intellectual support),so as to form a new model of poverty alleviation through party construction and practicing the lofty purpose of serving the poor household wholeheartedly,and provide a useful reference for the grassroots party construction in China to promote poverty alleviation.

Work Effectiveness,Problems and Countermeasures of Third-Party Assessment Teams from Colleges and Universities for Targeted Poverty Alleviation

Conducting a third-party assessment on targeted poverty alleviation can effectively avoid the disadvantage that local government plays as both athlete(i.e.performer of poverty alleviation work)and referee(i.e.referee for poverty alleviation effect)in poverty alleviation to ensure the truth of poverty alleviation,and therefore,it is an important part of the work to win the battle against poverty.Since 2016,the thirdparty assessment teams from colleges and universities for targeted poverty alleviation have achieved good results and performance in the assessment on both the effectiveness of targeted poverty alleviation work and the exit of poor counties in China,and they have made due contributions to the cause of poverty alleviation.However,as a new thing,third-party assessment obviously has some problems,mainly including the following:subjective understanding on the long-term nature of rural poverty alleviation is insufficient,and there is a lack of long-term considerations and related mechanism for third-party assessment;affected by policies and institutions,most of the existing third-party assessment teams from colleges and universities have not regarded third-party assessment of targeted poverty alleviation as a cause,and they lack the motivation to actively study the assessment business;and the third-party assessment staff from colleges and universities for targeted poverty alleviation have low stability and high mobility,not conducive to the long-term construction of assessment teams.In order to establish long-term poverty alleviation and prevention mechanisms,these issues must be addressed squarely and relevant countermeasures need to be taken actively to effectively build a long-term mechanism for building third-party assessment teams from colleges and universities for targeted poverty alleviation.

Reflections on China’s Targeted Poverty Alleviation Strategy from the Perspective of Drawing on Advantages and Avoiding Disadvantages in the New Era

The new era has put forward new requirements for targeted poverty alleviation.Coordinating disaster prevention,mitigation and relief and ecological civilization construction to assist targeted poverty alleviation has become an important direction for alleviating poverty from the perspective of drawing on advantages and avoiding disadvantages.The Outline of the 13th Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development of the People's Republic of China has planned and deployed to fully implement the task of poverty alleviation.The current poverty alleviation is extending from fixed-point poverty alleviation to collaborative poverty alleviation and targeted poverty alleviation.Combining the needs of disaster response,climate adaptation,resource utilization,ecological construction,and information utilization in poverty-stricken areas,the role of disaster risk monitoring,forecasting and early warning services is displayed.The disaster prevention,mitigation and relief and poverty alleviation in the new era should be integrated into the national poverty alleviation pattern,actively serve poverty alleviation projects of industry development,relocation and ecological protection,deeply explore the value of disaster risk information and improve the effective supply of disaster prevention,mitigation and relief services,letting disaster prevention,mitigation and relief and ecological civilization construction help the implementation of targeted poverty alleviation.

Satisfaction of targeted poverty alleviation policies and its influencing factors based on farmers' perspective:Questionnaire survey and research on 1720 farmers in Shaanxi Province of China

Based on the first-hand data of the household survey of targeted poverty alleviation policies,five dimensions were analyzed from the residential regions,the individual characteristics,the household income characteristics,the poverty status and the farmers' relevancy to poverty alleviation policies.Through descriptive statistics and correlation analysis,the satisfaction of targeted poverty alleviation policies and its influencing factors have been inspected.It is found that the farmers,on the whole,are satisfied with the targeted poverty alleviation policies.Their satisfaction for the implementation of local poverty alleviation policies is in a moderate high level,however at the same time they expect the policies to be improved.The impoverished farmers in southern Shaanxi have higher satisfaction towards the poverty alleviation policies.Those farmers' awareness,participation,and benefit are positively related to the level of satisfaction towards policies.The implementation of the poverty alleviation from the government is not only favorable for its people,but also the country.It can greatly enhance the recognition of the government's legitimacy and local government's credibility.To formulate and implement the targeted alleviation policies,the relationship between farmers,especially impoverished farmers,and such policies should be taken into consideration.The starting point and judging criteria of poverty alleviation job should be based on questions whether the farmers know,need,and have the willing to participate in and satisfy with the policies.Those farmers' right to know,participate,benefit and judge should be protected,and it will continuously promote the efficiency of implementing poverty alleviation.

Effect of rural household participation and targeted tourism poverty alleviation

In areas with abundant tourism resources,it is possible for the poor to get rid of poverty by developing tourism.Differences in the extent to which farmers participate in the division of the tourism industry chain lead to differences in the effectiveness of poverty alleviation.This paper conducts in-depth interviews on the participation of rural households in the division of labor in the tourism industry chain in Qianshan city,and studies the degree to which rural households participate in the division of labor in the tourism industry chain,as well as the differences in the increment of tourism income brought about by different degrees.The survey found that the reasons for the differences in the degree of participation of farmers in tourism:off-season crops are not developed,and seasonal crops are competing for sale;Middlemen buy agricultural products from farmers at low prices.Farmers’organic products are not recognized and unable to enter the organic market.From the perspective of the government and farmers,the paper puts forward countermeasures for solving the above predicament.

Analysis and countermeasures on targeted poverty alleviation in southwest China: An empirical experience from Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan Province

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the patterns and factors of targeted poverty alleviation strategy in Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture,a key area from national contiguous special povertystricken areas in China.Data collection took place in August 2015,July 2016 and June 2018,a literature search was carried out between March 2018 and May 2018,peer-reviewed publications in English were considered but to keep down the length of the paper and reduce redundancy,not all literature sources we collected are listed as references.The results show that progress of targeted poverty alleviation and development work in Nujiang Prefecture is generally smooth and obvious.Completing the"13 th Five-Year Plan"for poverty alleviation and development on schedule is also full of challenges and still needs a lot of effort.This study analyzes current situation and challenges for carrying out targeted poverty alleviation strategy in Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture.These contribute to the efficiency and effectiveness in poverty alleviation work in frontier minority area of China.

Factor Capitalization,Industry Development and Targeted Poverty Alleviation——Based on the Investigation of Danzhai County,Guizhou Province

At present,targeted poverty alleviation is a major development strategy in China.Based on the investigation of Danzhai County in Guizhou Province,this paper argues that industry development is the fundamental measure through which to implement the poverty alleviation program.Industry development includes both the development of local industries in povertystricken areas and the development of industries in other regions of China.Local development is mainly achieved when the invisible superior resources become visible and the notable superior resources are capitalized in povertystricken areas,in which,the capitalization of factors and resources relies on fundamental governmental investments which will create a profit space for the poverty-stricken areas through the down-to-countryside cadres' precise guidance for the use of poverty alleviation funds to help identify a breakthrough for industry development,and particularly the attempts to focus on the development of high-end industries under the lower-end production mode to form a community with common interests aiding poverty alleviation.Development in other regions can be mainly achieved through various modes such as "tax-finance-poverty alleviation," "industry-employment-poverty alleviation" and "industry-enterprise direct investment-poverty alleviation" to offer indirect or direct support for poverty alleviation in poverty-stricken areas.An appropriate handling is required to deal with many problems related to the local industry development in targeted poverty alleviation and the targeted poverty alleviation in industry development.

Present Situation,Problems and Countermeasures of Targeted Poverty Alleviation in Shaxi Township of Lichuan City

Poverty is a major factor restricting the economic and social development of all countries in the world.Eliminating poverty and improving people's livelihood have always been the long-cherished goals of mankind.This paper elaborated the targeted poverty alleviation work in Shaxi Township of Lichuan City mainly from three aspects:targeted identification,targeted assistance,and targeted exit.Besides,it analyzed the problems existing in the practice of targeted poverty alleviation in Shaxi Township,and put forward corresponding countermeasures and recommendations.

The Content and Approaches of Human Resource Development in Impoverished Rural Regions in the Context of Targeted Poverty Alleviation

Poverty alleviation requires knowledge support. Targeted poverty alleviation, aiming to tackle rural poverty, needs to be supported by corresponding rural human resource development. Currently, China's human resource development in impoverished rural regions is faced with some major problems; a huge population distributed over a vast area, a lack of technological and cultural attainment, obsolete concepts, obsolete technical resources, and a significant gap between rural and urban education attainment. Rural human resource development, which is geared to targeted poverty alleviation, includes a variety of impoverished rural population-oriented trainings, such as intelligence development, skills training, modern professionalism &work attitude cultivation, physical & mental health education, as well as modern lifestyle & civilized manners guidance. Targeted poverty alleviation should be equipped with mechanisms of comprehensive layout & planning, coordinated advancement of development content and implementation, and a mechanism of organization & input. The approaches to the advancement of rural human resource development are enhancing basic education, building a system of vocational education and training, raising the social security level and improving the supporting mechanisms.