Effects of Heaving Motion on the Aerodynamic Performance of a Double-Element Wing in Ground Effect

The broad implication of the paper is to elucidate the significance of the dynamic heaving motion in the aerodynamic performance of multi-element wings,currently considered as a promising aspect for the improvement of the aerodynamic correlation between CFD,wind tunnel and track testing in race car applications.The relationship between the varying aerodynamic forces,the vortex shedding,and the unsteady pressure field of a heaving double-element wing is investigated for a range of mean ride heights,frequencies,and amplitudes,using a two-dimensional(2D)unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes(URANS)approach and an overset mesh method for modelling the moving wing.The analysis of the results shows that at high frequencies,i.e.,k≥5.94 and amplitudes a/c≥0.05 the interaction of the shear vorticity between the two elements results in the generation of cohering leading and trailing edge vortices on the flap,associated to the rapid variation of thrust and downforce enhancement.Both the occurrence and intensity of these vortices are dependent upon the frequency,amplitude,and mean ride height of the heaving wing.The addition of the flap significantly alters the frequency of the shed vortices in the wake and maintains the generation of downforce for longer time in ground proximity.The comparison with the static wing provides evidence that the dynamic motion of a race car wing can be beneficial in terms of performance,or detrimental in terms of aerodynamic correlation.

Unsteady flow structure of an airfoil in ground effect

Particle image velocimetry （PIV） experimental results of wake flow structure of a NACA0012 airfoil with small attack angle mounted above water surface are introduced.The experiment was carried out in a small-scale wind-wave tunnel.The diameter of wind-wave tunnel test section is 1.7 m （long） × 0.4 m （width） × 0.4 m （height）.The flow fields around the airfoil were measured under four diffierent conditions by varying the distance between the airfoil and the water surface.The attack angle of the airfoil was kept 10- during the experiment.For each experimental condition,the time series of particle images was captured to calculate continuous evolution of the velocity fields.The velocity fields were ensemble averaged to get the statistic parameters such as mean velocity and vorticity.Typical instantaneous velocity fields for each case are introduced to show the basic flow structure of wind surface flow separation.The aerodynamic loads acting on the airfoil are analyzed qualitatively according to the mean vorticity distribution in the flow field based on the theory of vorticity aerodynamics.The results indicate that the flow structures and drag/lift force of the airfoil alter remarkably with the changing distance between the airfoil and water surface.

Experimental investigation on tip vortices and aerodynamics of a wing with ground effect

The tip vortices and aerodynamics of a NACA0012 wing in the vicinity of the ground were studied in a wind tunnel.The wing tip vortex structures and lift/drag forces were measured by a seven-hole probe and a force balance,respectively.The evolution of the flow structures and aerodynamics with a ground height were analyzed.The vorticity of tip vortices was found to reduce with the decreasing of the ground height,and the position of vortex-core moved gradually to the outboard of the wing tip.Therefore,the down-wash flow induced by the tip vortices was weakened. However,vortex breakdown occurred as the wing lowered to the ground.From the experimental results of aerodynamics,the maximum lift-to-drag ratio was observed when the angle of attack was 2.5°and the ground clearance was 0.2.

On the unsteady motion and stability of a heaving airfoil in ground effect

This study explores the fluid mechanics and force generation capabilities of an inverted heaving airfoil placed close to a moving ground using a URANS solver with the Spalart-Allmaras turbulence model. By varying the mean ground clearance and motion frequency of the airfoil, it was possible to construct a frequency-height diagram of the various forces acting on the airfoil. The ground was found to enhance the downforce and reduce the drag with respect to freestream. The unsteady motion induces hysteresis in the forces’ behaviour. At moderate ground clearance, the hysteresis increases with frequency and the airfoil loses energy to the flow, resulting in a stabilizing motion. By analogy with a pitching motion, the airfoil stalls in close proximity to the ground. At low frequencies, the motion is unstable and could lead to stall flutter. A stall flutter analysis was undertaken. At higher frequencies, inviscid effects overcome the large separation and the motion becomes stable. Forced trailing edge vortex shedding appears at high frequencies. The shedding mechanism seems to be independent of ground proximity. However, the wake is altered at low heights as a result of an interaction between the vortices and the ground.

Numerical simulation of the influence of ground effect on the performance of multi section wings

the establishment of multi-element airfoil in steady and unsteady ground effect N-S equation turbulence model, the S-A model of multi element airfoils during takeoff and landing high attack angle change numerical simulation analysis, the calculation results show that the lower altitude, lift and drag wing angle decreased; the greater the ground the effect is more obvious, the greater the loss of lift. The simulation results show that the lift coefficient is slightly less than that of unsteady numerical simulation, and the drag coefficient is slightly less than that of unsteady numerical simulation. The ground disturbance to the wing not only affects the steady state flow field, but also is closely related to the unsteady aerodynamic performance. The results of this study can provide a reference for the design and flight control of large aircraft wings.

Impact of Ground Effect on Airplane Lateral Directional Stability during Take-Off and Landing

Computational simulations of aerodynamic characteristics of the Common Research Model (CRM), representing a typical transport airliner are conducted using CFD methods in close proximity to the ground. The obtained dependencies on bank angle for aerodynamic forces and moments are further used in stability and controllability analysis of the lateral-directional aircraft motion. Essential changes in the lateral-directional modes in close proximity to the ground have been identified. For example, with approach to the ground, the roll subsidence and spiral eigenvalues are merging creating the oscillatory Roll-Spiral mode with quite significant frequency. This transformation of the lateral-directional dynamics in piloted simulation may affect the aircraft responses to external crosswind, modify handling quality characteristics and improve realism of crosswind landing. The material of this paper was presented at the Seventh European Conference for Aeronautics and Space Sciences EUCASS-2017. Further work is carried out for evaluation of the ground effect aerodynamics for a high-lift configuration based on a hybrid geometry of DLR F11 and NASA GTM models with fully deployed flaps and slats. Some aspects of grid generation for a high lift configuration using structured blocking approach are discussed.

Study on the Wake Shape behind a Wing in Ground Effect Using an Unsteady Discrete Vortex Panel Method

The unsteady evolution of trailing vortex sheets behind a wing in ground effect is simulated using an unsteady discrete vortex panel method. The ground effect is included by image method. The present method is validated by comparing the simulated wake roll-up shapes to published numerical results. When a wing is flying in a very close proximity to the ground, the optimal wing loading is parabolic rather than elliptic. Thus, a theoretical model of wing load distributions is suggested, and unsteady vortex evolutions behind lifting lines with both elliptic and parabolic load distributions are simulated for several ground heights. For a lifting line with elliptic and parabolic loading, the ground has the effect of moving the wingtip vortices laterally outward and suppressing the development of the vortex. When the wing is in a very close proximity to the ground, the types of wing load distributions does not affect much on the overall wake shapes, but parabolic load distributions make the wingtip vortices move more laterally outward than the elliptic load distributions.

Predicting Ground Effects of Omnidirectional Antennas in Wireless Sensor Networks

Omnidirectional antennas are often used for radio frequency (RF) communication in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Outside noise, electromagnetic interference (EMI), overloaded network traffic, large obstacles (vegetation and buildings), terrain and atmospheric composition, along with climate patterns can degrade signal quality in the form of data packet loss or reduced RF communication range. This paper explores the RF range reduction properties of a particular WSN designed to operate in agricultural crop fields to collect aggregate data composed of subsurface soil moisture and soil temperature. Our study, using simulation, anechoic and field measurements shows that the effect of antenna placement close to the ground (within 10 cm) signi?cantly changes the omnidirectional transmission pattern. We then develop and propose a prediction method that is more precise than current practices of using the Friis and Fresnel equations. Our prediction method takes into account environmental properties for RF communication range based on the height of nodes and gateways.

Hovering rotor aerodynamics in extreme ground effect

This paper presents an experimental and numerical study of the aerodynamics of a moderate-scale rotor hovering in the Extreme Ground Effect(EGE)where rotor height-offground is below half the rotor radius.The tip vortex field was visualized by using the PIV technique.The aerodynamic performance,tip vortex trajectory,wall jet characteristics,surface pressure and velocity fields were measured and analyzed.To explore more deeply the flow mechanisms of the extreme ground effect,Detached Eddy Simulation(DES)was conducted on completely structured meshes.The results showed significant deviations of the rotor performance in EGE from that in Regular Ground Effect(RGE)with the rotor heights of more than half the rotor radius.Moreover,the flow structures of the rotor in EGE are considerably complex,such as the wall jet and groundwash flow separation.The rotor wake flow and tip vortices impact the ground more frequently,resulting in distinctive characteristics of the surface pressure and velocity fields in EGE.

The future and technique challenges of high-speed ground effect vehicle enrolled in maritime transportation

This paper presents a high-speed ground effect vehicle(HS-GEV)used specifically for maritime transportation.Given the limitations of current vessels,including various types of watercraft and high-speed boats,in fulfilling of needs in different maritime transportation scenarios,the HS-GEV emerges as a promising solution to address unmet requirements.To efficiently accomplish maritime transportation missions with quickness and safety,several critical features are emphasized,including short take-off on water,flight maneuverability and flight stability.The key techniques required to achieve these features,as well as recent progress highlights,are introduced.Following and promoting these crucial techniques is also suggested as a future step to improve HS-GEV performance.With its predominant features,the HS-GEV holds immense application value in enhancing a high-speed maritime transportation system that aligns with the evolving needs of the real world.

Numerical investigation on unsteady characteristics of ducted fans in ground effect

Ducted fans are widely used in various applications of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles(UAVs)due to the high efficiency,low noise and high safety.The unsteady characteristics of ducted fans flying near the ground are significant,which may bring stability problems.In this paper,the sliding mesh technology is applied and the Unsteady Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes(URANS)method is adopted to evaluate the influence of ground on the aerodynamic performance of ducted fans.The time-averaged results show that the ground leads to the decrease of duct thrust,the increase of rotor thrust and the decrease of total thrust.The transient results show that there exist small-scale stall cells with circumferential movements in ground effect.The stall cells start to appear at the blade root when the height is 0.8 rotor radius distance,and arise at both the blade root and tip when the height drops to 0.2.It is found that the unsteady cells rotate between blade passages with an approximate relative speed of 30%-80%of the fan speed,and lead to thrust fluctuations up to 37%of the total thrust.The results are essential to the flight control design of the ducted fan flying vehicle,to ensure its stability in ground effect.

Complex Flow for Wing-in-ground Effect Craft with Power Augmented Ram Engine in Cruise

Power augmented ram （PAR）engine is a popular equipment to reduce the requirement of power for takeoff and improve aerodynamic performance. To provide detailed insight into the aerodynamic characteristics of wing-in-ground effect （WIG）craft with PAR engine, numerical simulations are carried out on WIG craft models in cruise. Simplified engine models are applied to the simulations. Two cruise modes for PAR engine are considered. The aerodynamic characteristics of the WIG craft and other features are studied. Comparisons with WIG craft model without PAR show that shutoff of PAR engine results in an increase in drag and less change in lift. Accordingly for the work of PAR engine, the air flow blown from the engine accelerates the flow around the upper surface and a high-speed attached flow near the trailing edge is recorded. With the schemed PAR flow, more suction force is realized and the flow features over the wing vary noticeably. It is also shown that the Coanda effect,provided with an attached flow, introduces an appropriate and practical flow mode for WIG craft with PAR engine in cruise. The results refresh our understanding on aerodynamic characteristics of WIG craft.

Fluid Dynamics of Flapping Insect Wing in Ground Effect

The fluid dynamics of flapping insect wing in ground effect is investigated numerically in this study. To model the insect wing cross-section in forward-flight mode, the laminar flow over a NACA0012 airfoil animated by a combination of harmonic plunge and pitch rotation is considered. To implement the simulation, the proposed immersed boundary-lattice Boltzmann method is employed. By fixing the Reynolds number and the amplitude of motion, we systematically examine the influences of the distance between the foil and the ground and the flapping frequency on the flow behaviors. As compared to the situation out of ground effect, the forces for foil placed in close proximity to the ground show some differences. The mean drag coefficient is increased at low frequency and decreased at high frequency. Meanwhile, the mean lift coefficient is increased at both low and high frequencies and decreased at middle frequency. Moreover, an interesting phenomenon with oblate vortices due to vortex interaction with the ground is observed.

Schemed Power-augmented Flow for Wing-in-ground Effect Craft in Cruise

To provide detailed insight into schemed power-augmented flow for wing-in-ground effect（WIG） craft in view of the concept of cruising with power assistance,this paper presents a numerical study.The engine installed before the wing for power-augmented flow is replaced by a simplified engine model in the simulations,and is considered to be equipped with a thrust vector nozzle.Flow features with different deflected nozzle angles are studied.Comparisons are made on aerodynamics to evaluate performance of power-augmented ram（PAR） modes in cruise.Considerable schemes of power-augmented flow in cruise are described.The air blown from the PAR engine accelerates the flow around wing and a high-speed attached flow near the trailing edge is recorded for certain deflected nozzle angles.This effect takes place and therefore the separation is prevented not only at the trailing edge but also on the whole upper side.The realization of suction varies with PAR modes.It is also found that scheme of blowing air under the wing for PAR engine is aerodynamically not efficient in cruise.The power-augmented flow is extremely complicated.The numerical results give clear depiction of the flow.Optimal scheme of power-augmented flow with respect to the craft in cruise depends on the specific engines and the flight regimes.

NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF THE GROUND EFFECT ON INSECT HOVERING

The ground effect on insect hovering is investigated using an immersed boundary-lattice Boltzmann method to solve the two-dimensional incompressible Navier-Stokes equations. A virtual model of an elliptic foil with oscillating translation and rotation near a ground is used. The objective of this study is to deal with the ground effect on the unsteady forces and vortical structures and to get the physical insights in the relevant mechanisms. Two typical insect hovering modes, i.e., normal and dragonfly hovering mode, are examined. Systematic computations have been carried out for some parameters, and the ground effect on the unsteady forces and vortical structures is analyzed.

Drag reduction and flow structures of wing tip sails in ground effect

The hydrodynamics and flow structures of a base wing slotted with tip sails in proximity to the ground were studied experimentally in order to investigate the flow control efficiency of wing tip sails in ground effect.The experiment was conducted in a towing tank at a Reynolds number 1.5×10^5.The lift and drag forces were measured by a transducer,the velocity fields of the wing tip vortices were measured using a time-resolved particle image velocimetry system(TR-PIV).The tip-sails and ground clearance were both effective in reducing the total drag,the lift coefficients of the tip-sails wings were increased as compared with that of a base wing.The lift-drag ratios of the tip-sails wings were improved obviously in a range of angles of attack from 2°to stalling angle.The tip-sails played more important role in unwinding the concentrated wing tip vortices at higher angle of attack,the intensity of the tip vortices were much weaker than that of the base wing.The development of the wing tip vortices was suppressed as well due to the inhibition of the ground,the downwash speed was reduced and the induced drag was decreased.

Parameter study on lateral moments of banked wings in ground effect

Ground effect dramatically improves the performance of the Wing-in-Ground(WIG)vehicles near the ground.However,making coordinate turnings in ground effect zone may raise complexity in flight control.The Angle of Attack(AOA)and height are believed to be important factors.To find the impact of these factors,three straight rectangular wings with different aspect ratios are simulated via CFD approach.The results show that in normal situations,the rolling moment tends to level the wing but less effective with the decreasing AOA and changes its direction when the AOA is less than a height dependent value.The yaw moment exhibits complex behavior because two different effects generate oppose moments.The rolling moment coefficient is more influenced by the ground if a wing has larger Aspect Ratio(AR)and works at low to medium AOA.The yawing coefficient is always more influenced if the wing has larger AR regardless AOAs.These findings can provide basic guidance for the design of control system and enable aircraft designers to reshape the crafts to avoid or utilize this effect.

Seepage effects of groundwater and its make-up water on triggering ground subsidence

The functioning mechanism of groundwater and its make-up water in the process of ground subsidence was studied from such three aspects as osmotic corrasion, osmotic pressure effect and concretion effect, As to osmotic corrasion, its forming conditions, mechanical mechanism and process were analyzed, As to osmotic pressure effect, it was mainly studied from hydrostatic pressurizing effect, sop softening effect and negative pressure sealing effect. Through concretion and saturation of soil, the factors of concretion settlement were analyzed. The results showed that both groundwater and its make-up water are important triggering factors to ground subsidence.

A time-domain nonlinear effective-stress non-Masing approach of ground response analysis of Guwahati city, India

The response of subsoil strata subjected to seismic excitations plays an important role in governing the response of the overlying superstructures at any site. Ground response analysis(GRA) helps to assess the influence of soil characteristics on the propagating seismic stress waves from the bedrock level to the ground surface during an earthquake. For the northeastern region of India, located in the highest seismic zone in the country, conducting an extensive GRA study is of prime importance. Conventionally, most of the GRA studies are carried out using the equivalent linear method, which, being a simplistic approach, cannot capture the nonlinear behavior of soil during seismic shaking. This paper presents the outcomes of a one-dimensional effective stress based nonlinear GRA conducted for Guwahati city(located in northeast India) incorporating the non-Masing load/unload/reload characteristics. The various ground response parameters evaluated from this study help in assessing the ground shaking, soil amplification, and site responses expected in this region. 2D contour maps, which are representative of the distribution of some of these parameters throughout Guwahati city, are also developed. The results presented herein can serve as guidelines for the design of foundations and superstructures in this region.

Ground effects on magnetooptic Bragg cells

Propagation equation of magnetostatic waves in an arbitrarily magnetized yttrium-iron-garnet/gadolinium- gallium-garnet waveguide coated with perfect metal planes is obtained using the method of the surface magnetic permeability. And ground effects on magnetooptic Bragg cells are investigated with the magnetooptic coupled-mode theory. Theoretical analysis indicates that, diffraction efficiency of guided optical waves can be improved by adjusting the spacing of the metal plane from the ferrite film, and ground effects on the diffraction efficiency will be enhanced using an appropriately tilted bias magnetic field. In the metal clad waveguide system, the magnetostatic wave frequency at which the diffraction efficiency peak is obtained corresponds to the "zero-dispersion" point. Performance of RF spectrum analyzers in this system can also be improved by comparing with the case of the sandwich waveguide. Therefore, magnetooptic Bragg cells with the metal clad waveguide are potential applications to the microwave communication and optical signal processing.