Machine Learning Analysis of Impact of Western US Fires on Central US Hailstorms

Fires,including wildfires,harm air quality and essential public services like transportation,communication,and utilities.These fires can also influence atmospheric conditions,including temperature and aerosols,potentially affecting severe convective storms.Here,we investigate the remote impacts of fires in the western United States(WUS)on the occurrence of large hail(size:≥2.54 cm)in the central US(CUS)over the 20-year period of 2001–20 using the machine learning(ML),Random Forest(RF),and Extreme Gradient Boosting(XGB)methods.The developed RF and XGB models demonstrate high accuracy(>90%)and F1 scores of up to 0.78 in predicting large hail occurrences when WUS fires and CUS hailstorms coincide,particularly in four states(Wyoming,South Dakota,Nebraska,and Kansas).The key contributing variables identified from both ML models include the meteorological variables in the fire region(temperature and moisture),the westerly wind over the plume transport path,and the fire features(i.e.,the maximum fire power and burned area).The results confirm a linkage between WUS fires and severe weather in the CUS,corroborating the findings of our previous modeling study conducted on case simulations with a detailed physics model.

Analysis of Doppler Radar Data about a Super Monomer Hailstorms in the Northeastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

[Objective] The Doppler radar data about a super monomer hailstorms in the northeastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in the Zhongchuan Airport in the Lanzhou City on September 6,2010 was studied.[Method] By dint of routine data and radar data,the low vortex shear line type and the super monomer hailstorm around the Zhongchuan Airport in the Lanzhou City on September 6,2010 were expounded.Basic product and secondary product of Doppler radar were used in this process to reflect the characteristics of strong convection weather.Some characteristics of this process shall be explored.[Result] A small gush of cold air from the cold vortex of 500 hPa in the middle and high layer provided impacts.The warm shear line provided water vapor and energy in the 700 hPa.There was strong convective weather in the upper air.Such 10 minutes of hailstorm was rarely seen in the drought land in the northwest.The characteristics of the strong convection were distinct and typical.The front showed no echo form.However,it can not be reflected in 'strong wedge' in another form.In this process,characteristics of BWER and middle scale cyclone were distinct.And this was a typical hailstorm process caused by super monomer.[Conclusion] The study provided some helpful references for the forecast of strong convection weather in the Zhongchuan Airport in Lanzhou City.

Downward Trend in the Frequency of Destructive Hailstorms and Maximum Hailstone Size in England and Wales

By their definition, destructive hailstorms cause a great deal of damage to property and have been known to be fatal to humans. At present the long term changes in the frequency of these storms are unknown. Records of destructive hailstorms from many different sources in England and Wales go back for several centuries. Recently discovered records of over 30 destructive hailstorms have allowed a better description of hailstorm history since 1780. The data were grouped into 30, 40, and 50 year non-overlapping time periods in relation to time. Increases in their frequency in the 17th and 18th centuries were probably due to an increase in population and better recording. Since 1900 the frequency has significantly declined so that in the present 50 year time period only 22 have been recorded as compared with an average of 49 in both halves of the 19th century. The decline in frequency may be partly due to the big increase in particulate matter from aviation, which leads to a much higher concentration of ice and cloud condensation nuclei, resulting in fewer destructive hailstorms.

构建用户为中心的体验Microsoft“HailStorm”介绍

挑战在过去的25年中,信息技术给我们用户和商业带来了令人难以置信的价值。但即使这样,提高的空间还是很大。人们往往把注意力放在单个程序或设备上,从而忽视了周围的世界,今天,人们都不得不去适应大量的新技术,然而有没有想过,我们应该让技术来适应我们。人们不禁感到了疑惑和沮丧,有时候好像每个程序、每个站点、每个设备都有其独立的一种规则。比如,在一台PC上输入一个朋友的电话号码时,你必须按照特定的顺序使用键盘和鼠标。而要在Palm Pilot、Pocket

一次超级单体引发的秋季特大冰雹和龙卷雷达探测分析

利用烟台S波段双偏振多普勒雷达和荣成CINRAD/SA新一代天气雷达探测数据,结合探空、地面气象观测、ERA5再分析和冰雹、龙卷实地调查等资料,对2021年10月1日在山东半岛东部烟台、威海发生的特大冰雹和龙卷风暴的天气形势、环境参量和雷达探测特征进行分析。主要结果为:与气候平均场相比,造成本次强对流过程的500 hPa东北冷涡异常强盛,850 hPa自华南到东北地区西部有持续偏南水汽输送;在此异常环流背景下,山东半岛东部具有上干冷下暖湿、强的0~6 km垂直风切变和对流有效位能等有利于强冰雹、龙卷发生的环境条件;近地面的风暴前低压、雷暴高压和冷池特征明显。降雹时的风暴呈现典型超级单体特征,低层具有明显的钩状回波和倒“V”字型前侧入流缺口,垂直剖面显示出明显的有界弱回波区、差分反射率柱(Z DR柱)特征;根据大冰雹落点和降雹开始时间等信息,统计对应雹云的反射率因子、Z DR、相关系数(CC)的中位数分别为48.7 dBz、0.89 dB和0.90;地面出现龙卷和大冰雹时,风暴顶辐散强度最大达到71.5 m·s^(-1)。后侧阵风锋对应的出流边界北端的偏北气流与风暴前侧的偏南气流形成强涡旋上升运动,导致EF1级龙卷产生;龙卷发生在钩状回波的顶端,大冰雹多出现在入流缺口的北侧。地面发现龙卷发生前约5 min,雷达探测到龙卷碎片特征,Z DR和CC分别最低至-0.1 dB和0.81;龙卷发生前约11 min,探测到风暴低层的Z DR弧和风暴右后侧的下沉反射率因子核特征;荣成、烟台雷达分别提前22 min、5 min识别出中气旋和龙卷涡旋,可为龙卷预警提供重要参考。基于观测分析,给出了本次超级单体风暴的低层流场及龙卷、大冰雹落区的示意图。

山东一次典型持续冰雹过程的闪电活动和雷达特征分析

2020年6月1日下午至夜间,山东部分地区出现降雹天气,利用卫星和雷达以及闪电探测资料详细分析此次降雹过程的闪电和雷达参量特征。结果表明:(1)鲁北和鲁中雹暴闪电活动的主要差异为:鲁中雹暴的对流强度强于鲁北雹暴,其正地闪比例和正地闪平均强度明显高于鲁北雹暴。其相同特征为:在开始阶段正地闪比例和云闪占总闪电的比例较高;在地面降雹开始之前总闪电频数均出现跃增,其峰值提前降雹6~18 min,同时云闪表现更加活跃;地面出现降雹之后,云闪频数快速下降,地闪占总闪电比增加,甚至超过50%。(2)雹暴的闪电活动均发生在云顶温度小于-50℃的云区内,且密集出现在云顶温度小于-60℃的范围内。闪电主要发生在30 dBZ以上回波区域,密集的云闪对应强对流区,表明云内垂直运动剧烈。负地闪与差分相移率KDP>0.5 (°)·km-1和差分反射率ZDR>2.0 dB的区域对应关系非常一致,表明负地闪与强降水区密切相关。雹暴回波穹隆区的ZDR值较高、零滞后相关系数(Cc)值较低,很好地指示了上升气流区。较高的水平反射率因子(ZH)和较低的Cc以及较低的ZDR区域对应冰雹粒子区域。闪电很好地对应于云内霰、湿雪、冰雹、干雪等大的冰相粒子区。(3)0℃以上ZDR≥1.0 dB的体积、ZH≥30 dBZ的体积、ZH≥30 dBZ的冰水含量与总闪电频数的时间演变趋势基本一致,其与总闪电频数的相关系数分别为0.756、0.780和0.710,进一步证实大的冰相粒子在起电过程中发挥着主导作用。

一次贵阳冰雹过程数值模拟及冰雹形成微物理机制研究

本文采用WRF4.2模式对2020年5月19日发生在贵阳的一次冰雹过程进行数值模拟,再现了冰雹云在贵阳市的移动路径和发展演变过程。通过对冰雹云不同发展阶段的动力、热力和云微物理特征的分析,以及冰雹混合比源汇项的收支分析,得到了冰雹形成的微物理机制及概念模型。研究结果表明:(1)模拟的冰雹云在成熟阶段呈现典型的超级单体结构,存在悬垂回波和回波空洞。云内最大上升速度可达20 m s^(−1),上升气流从地面延伸至12 km,在高空西风的作用下向东流出,形成宽广的高空云砧。在上升气流后部中低层为强下沉气流。(2)雹胚粒子通过云冰碰冻雨滴形成,通过收集过冷云滴和雨滴增长,雹粒子的最大汇项是融化成雨水。(3)在冰雹云的成熟阶段,雹收集过冷云滴的效率增大,主要发生在强上升运动区中高层(6~10 km高度),大量雹粒子分布在上升运动区中高层以及悬垂回波区,最大混合比可达11 g kg^(−1)。(4)在冰雹云的消散阶段,云内上升速度减弱,高空云砧的范围扩大。雹粒子净转化效率降低,雹混合比减少。雹融化为雨水的效率增大,雨水分布质心降低,在近地面产生大量雨水。

Lightning activity and precipitation structure of hailstorms

By using the cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning location data from the lightning detection network of He- nan Province, surface Doppler radar data and standard orbit data of PR, TMI and LIS on TRMM satellite, the spatial and temporal characteristics of CG lightning flashes in 10 severe hailstorms are analyzed. The results show that the percentage of +CG lightning in these hailstorms is high with an average value of 45.5%. There is a distinct increase in CG flash rate during the rapid development stage of hailstorms. The hailstone falling corresponds to an active positive flash period, and the increase of +CG flash rate is generally accompanied with a decrease of –CG flash rate. The flash rate declines rapidly during the dissipating stage of hailstorms. The precipitation structure and lightning activity in two typical hail- storms are studied in detail. It is found that strong convective cells with reflectivity greater than 30dBZ mainly are situated in the front region of hailstorms, whereas the trailing stratiform region is in the rear part of the hailstorms. The maximum heights of echo top are higher than 14 km. Convective rain con- tributes much more rainfall to the total than stratiform rain, and the convective rain takes about 85% and 97% of the total in the two cases, respectively. Total lightning in the hailstorms is very active with the flash rate up to 183 fl/min and 55 fl/min, respectively. The results also indicate that most lightning flashes occurred in the echo region greater than 30 dBZ and its immediate periphery. The probability of lightning occurrence is 20 times higher in the convective region than in the stratiform region. The result suggests that the lightning information is helpful to the identification of convective rain region. The linear relationship between flash rate and ice water content is disclosed primarily.

青藏高原夏季一次冰雹过程的微物理特征

为提高青藏高原冰雹过程中降水特征的认识,利用雨滴谱数据并结合探空、雷达、FY-4A卫星和分钟降水资料,分析了2020年7月23日拉萨降雹过程的微物理特征。结果表明:在降水演变特征方面,雨量计分钟降水量与DSG5降水天气现象仪接近,但开始和结束时间、降水峰值及总降水量略有差异。此次过程中雨滴、冰雹的平均谱分布拟合曲线呈单调下降,雨滴谱符合Γ分布,雹谱符合M-P分布。降雹初期,降水粒子以小粒子居多,主要由雨滴下落中的蒸发所致;降雹后期,降水粒子谱宽变大,碰撞破碎和霰粒融化产生大量的小雨滴引起粒子数浓度剧增,数浓度增多和滴谱变宽导致雨强增大。冰雹的数浓度仅占总降水粒子数浓度的1.6%,但对地面降水量的贡献最大。根据观测,拟合得到冰雹平均末速度与直径的关系公式。

热带地区雹暴的闪电活动-动力-微物理特征研究

基于低频电场变化探测阵列三维闪电定位系统和S波段双偏振天气雷达数据, 对海南岛2021年6月24日一次雹暴过程的闪电活动和云内动力与微物理特征进行了详细的分析.结果显示: 该雹暴闪电活动以云闪为主, 占总闪的85.38%.降雹前发生的地闪以正地闪为主, 在降雹前25 min内, 正地闪频数占总地闪频数的60%, 高于一般雷暴正地闪活动比例.在雹暴成熟阶段, 上升气流出现两次增强, 而闪电频数的增加均滞后于上升气流增强的时段, 同时, 闪电频数的增加也可能与对流单体的合并有关.结合模糊逻辑判断法对云内降水粒子的识别, 计算了总闪与冰相粒子的相关系数, 其中霰和冰晶粒子与总闪相关性较高, 相关系数分别为0.76和0.83.根据闪电辐射源的空间分布特征, 推测该雹暴降雹前为反三极性电荷结构, 正电荷区位于约7~9.5 km(~-10 ℃至-25 ℃).

Characteristics of the Two Active Stages of Lightning Activity in Two Hailstorms

Two hailstorms that occurred in Beijing and Tianjin,respectively,are investigated,based mainly on the total lightning data observed by the System d＇Alerte Fondre par Interferometric Radioelecctrique（SAFIR3000）,the cloud-to-ground（CG） lightning data of a CG lightning location system,and the echo data of a Doppler radar.Both hailstorms exhibited two lightning frequency peaks：the first was before the hailfall and the second was after the hailfall,with the second peak greater than the first.The dominant polarity of the CG lightning was positive in the stage around the first frequency peak,but changed to negative in the stage around the second frequency peak.The evolution of radar echoes and the height distribution of lightning radiation sources are explored,revealing that both hailstorms had stronger convection and the main positive charge occurred at mid levels during the stage around the first frequency peak.However,whilst the Beijing hailstorm experienced the enhancement of convection,with the main positive charge at upper levels around the second frequency peak,the Tianjin hailstorm generated its second frequency peak during the period when the convection kept weakening and the main positive charge dropped to mid-lower levels.Through evaluation of the radar parameters,we investigate the mechanisms responsible for the second stage of active lightning discharge.Furthermore,the lightning activity exhibited a close relationship with radar echo parameters and hailfall.Lightning jump signals were found before the hailfall and were associated with the change ratio of the 40-dBZ echo volume above the-15℃ level,which demonstrates the application value of lightning data in severe weather warning.

泰山一次强雹暴微物理特征双偏振雷达和雨滴谱观测分析

为了研究雹暴的微物理特征,利用双偏振雷达和雨滴谱仪探测资料,结合粒子相态分类算法,对2020年6月1日发生在泰山的一次降雹天气进行了分析,获得了雹暴云影响泰山站时附近区域雷达参量、水凝物粒子、降水粒子谱分布特征。研究表明:雹暴云前缘开始影响泰山站时,反射率因子(ZH)梯度大值区紧邻泰山站,与差分反射率(ZDR)弧位置大致重合,此处主要为大滴粒子,由上空霰粒子融化形成;雨滴谱为双峰结构,对降水贡献较大的为2~3 mm粒子。当雹暴云主体影响泰山站时,其前侧径向出现三体散射,上空出现悬垂回波,泰山站附近区域主要识别为雹粒子;泰山站南侧出现有界弱回波,该处辐合升运动增强,被ZDR大值半环绕,主要分布大滴与雹粒子,夹杂霰与湿雪粒子;归一化等高频率(CFAD)显示冰相过程增强;-10℃层以下雹粒子主要由-10~0℃层的霰粒子凇附上升气流携带的大滴与中小雨粒子形成,这些粒子无法下落碰并形成尺寸较大的降水粒子,雨滴谱变为单峰结构,对降水贡献最大的为14~16 mm粒子。雹暴云主体离开泰山站,CFAD显示冰相过程减弱,冰晶凇附过冷云滴转化成霰的效率降低,泰山站上空识别出大量的冰晶与干雪粒子,出现层状云降水特征;雨滴谱再次变为双峰结构,第二峰值为2~3 mm粒子,对降水贡献最大。

我国西南地区春季典型雹暴观测与数值模拟研究

为了进一步厘清我国西南地区春季典型雹暴宏微观物理过程及成雹机制,本文选取X波段双偏振天气雷达资料、ADTD闪电定位系统监测资料以及地面降雹观测资料,运用模糊逻辑算法和耦合了NSSL双参方案的WRF-Elec模式,对2018年3月13日一次典型的雹暴单体降雹过程中热动力、微物理和闪电活动特征进行对比分析,并构建了单体雹暴过程各阶段的微物理模型。结果表明:(1)发展和成熟阶段是雹暴过程的关键阶段,霰粒子继续通过液滴与冰晶和雪与液滴的碰撞生成,而雹在“累积带”区域由液滴-低密度霰碰撞形成,并通过液态水的吸积而增大。(2)正地闪发生阶段与上升气流位置、雹含量和地闪的快速增加阶段相对应,反三极性电荷结构是正地闪在此次雹暴过程中占优的重要原因,它主要表现为对流起电机制作用,在云上部感应出一个较弱的负电荷区而生成,持续时间较短。(3)此次雹暴过程中强烈的上升气流对雹胚增长、冰雹形成、反极性结构的形成起主要作用,利用数值模式可以再现雹暴的反极性电荷结构演变特征和闪电活动特征。(4)基于观测结果与数值模拟构建的单体雹暴过程各阶段微物理模型,有利于理解雹暴中热动力过程、微物理过程、反极性电荷结构的形成及其与闪电活动特征的关系,对我国西南复杂地形区域的雹暴预报具有一定的指导意义。

1991—2020年暖季河套灌区强对流天气主要流型及环境参量特征分析

利用常规气象观测资料、区域自动站观测资料及ERA5再分析资料,对河套灌区1991—2020年542个冰雹个例和281个短时强降水个例主要流型及环境参量特征进行分析。结果显示:(1)短时强降水天气主要有新疆低槽(涡)、东北冷涡、蒙古冷涡、西南气流4类影响系统,冰雹天气主要有蒙古冷涡、西北气流、东北冷涡、巴尔喀什湖冷涡4类影响系统;(2)河套灌区短时强降水和冰雹各关键参数预报阈值均有差异,最低阈值的建议值采用箱线图25%百分位值,其中△T_(850-500)分别为26和33℃,K指数均值分别为27和35℃,CAPE均值分别为515和405 J·kg^(-1),0~6 km垂直风切变均为7×10^(-3)s^(-1),0℃层高度均值分别为4656和4069 m,-20℃层高度均值分别为8070和7054 m;(3)冰雹需要更大的K指数、△T_(850-500)以及更强的低层暖空气,同时冰雹有更低的0℃层和-20℃层高度,较低的0℃层高度可以防止冰雹下落过程融化。此外,下垫面因子对不同强对流天气的影响程度也不同,海拔高度是影响河套灌区冰雹分布的主要因素。

NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF MICROPHYSICAL PROCESSES IN CUMULONIMBUS——PART Ⅱ CASE STUDIES OF SHOWER,HAILSTORM AND TORRENTIAL RAIN

A shower cloud observed in Jiangxi,a hailstorm observed in Hebei and“75.8”torrential rain in Henan are simulated with our microphysical model in a one-dimensional framework.The model,using the radio- sonde data as input,gets its output which shows agreement in many aspects as compared with observations in each case.The glaciation of small cumulus cloud,low precipitation efficiency of hailstorm and the per- sistence of torrential rain are demonstrated.It is also shown that the Bergeron process has little influence, but the warm-rain process plays an important role in the formation of precipitation in cumulonimbus with a warm cloud base.

基于多源观测资料研究重庆地区一次风雹过程

为认识风雹发生前后对流系统的热动力演变特征,加强新型探测资料在风雹监测预警中的应用,利用微波辐射计、风廓线雷达、多普勒雷达等观测资料,对2014年4月18日凌晨发生在重庆西部地区的一次强风雹天气过程进行分析。结果表明:此次风雹过程为典型的低层暖平流强迫类强对流天气,雷达回波悬垂特征和径向速度辐合明显。风雹发生前,微波辐射计反演的温湿度跃增明显,风雹发生前1.0~3.0 h,K指数、850 hPa与500 hPa假相当位温差(θ_(se850-500))、对流有效位能(Convective Available Potential Energy,CAPE)、0~3 km垂直风切变(Vertical Wind Shear,SHR_(0-3))等指数随时间临近明显递增,大气折射率结构常数(Cn^(2))在风雹发生前0.2~0.5 h达到波峰,风廓线雷达显示中低层的垂直速度随高度波动较大;多次风雹过程的参数共性显示,风雹发生前0~0.5 h,微波辐射计25.00 GHz亮温、Cn^(2)和大气折射率结构常数面积(S_(Cn^(2)))都有明显增加趋势,风雹发生前0~10 min,(S_(Cn^(2)))均大于-500 dB·km阈值。观测站降雹时,垂直积分液态水和地面到高空的垂直速度差均达到最大,Cn^(2)在中低层跃增大于阈值-120 dB。以上特征对识别风雹的发生有较好指示意义。

A Case Study of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Activities in Hailstorms under Cold Eddy Synoptic Situation

There were three hailstorms in Shandong Province, caused by a same northeast cold eddy situation on 1 June 2002. Cloud-to-ground （CG） flashes occurring in the weather event were observed by Shandong Lightning Detection Network （SLDN）, which consists of 10 sensors covering all over Shandong Province. The temporal and spatial distributions of CG lightning are investigated for the three hailstorms by using the data from SLDN, Doppler radar and satellite. The results show that different thunderstorms present different lightning features even if under the same synoptic situation. The percentage of positive CG lightning is very high during the period of hail falling. CG flashes mainly occurred in the region with a cloud top brightness temperature lower than -50℃. Negative CG flashes usually clustered in the lower temperature region and tended to occur in the region with maximum temperature gradient, while the positive ones usually spread discretely. Negative CG flashes usually occurred in intense echo regions with reflectivity greater than 50 dBz, while the positive CG flashes often occurred in weak and stable echo regions （10-30 dBz） or cloud anvils, although they can be observed in strong convective regions sometimes. Almost all haft falling took place in the stage with active positive flashes, and the peak positive flash rate is a little prior to the hail events. The thunderstorm could lead to disastrous weather when positive CG lightning activities occur in cluster. Severe thunderstorms sometimes present a low flash rate at its vigorous stage, which is probably caused by the ＂mechanism of chargeregion lift＂ through investigating the reflectivity evolution. Combined with the total lightning （intracloud and CG） data obtained by LIS onboard TRMM, the phenomenon of high ratio of intracloud flash to CG flash in severe hailstorm has been discussed. The competition of the same charge sources between different lightning types can also be helpful for explaining the cause of low CG lightning activities in severe storms.

Variations of Precipitation Structure and Microwave Tbs During the Evolution of a Hailstorm from TRMM Observations

In this paper, a hailstorm occurring on 9 May 1999 in Huanghuai region was studied by using the combined data from the precipitation radar （PR）, microwave image （TMI）, and visible infrared scanner （VIRS） on the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission （TRMM） satellite. According to the 3-orbit observations of 5- h duration from the TRMM satellite, the variation characteristics of the precipitation structures as well as cloud top temperature and microwave signals of the precipitating cloud were comprehensively analyzed during the evolution of hailstorm. The results show that the precipitation is obviously converted from early hail cloud with strong convection into the later storm cloud with weak convection. For hail cloud, there exists some strong convective cells, and the heavy solid precipitation is shown at the middle-top levels so that the contribution of rainfall amount above the freezing-layer to the column precipitation amount is rather larger than that within the melting-layer. However, for storm cloud, the convective cells are surrounded by the large area of stratiform precipitation, and the precipitation thickness gradually decreases, and the rainfall above the freezing-layer obviously reduces and the contribution of rainfall amount within the melting-layer rapidly increases. Therefore, the larger ratio of rainfall amount above the freezing layer to column precipitation amount is, the more convective the cloud is; reversely, the larger proportion of rainfall below the melting layer is, the more stable the stratiform cloud is. The different changing trends of microwave signals at different precipitation stages show that it is better to consider the structures and stages of precipitating cloud to choose the optimal microwave channels to retrieve surface rainfall.

The effects of giant cloud condensation nuclei on the structure of precipitation in hailstorm clouds

The Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (RAMS) has been used to investigate the effects of varied giant cloud condensation nuclei (GCCN) concentrations on precipitation characteristics of the spring hailstorms in a semi-arid region. The simulation result shows that this variation has significant effects on the storm microphysical processes as well as on the surface precipitation. The coverage of hail and hail mixing ratio maxima in cloud increases with greater GCCN concentrations. The accumulation zone structure benefits the growth of hail particles. Higher GCCN concentrations lead to more supercooled rain water and cloud water available for freezing. This simulation also shows that increasing GCCN concentrations may produce more rainfall on the surface but less hail precipitation, and the total accumulated precipitation increases while the ice phase precipitation decreases. This effect is stronger in polluted air than in clean air. The surface flow field changes with different GCCN concentrations. The identification index of spring hailstorm is different from that of summer hailstorm with a different aerosol background.

Hailstorm Formation Enhanced by Meso-γ Vortices along a Low-Level Convergence Line

During a hailstorm event,near-surface meso-γvortices along a convergence line interact with hail cells.Herein we investigate this interaction by using observational data and a high-resolution simulation of a hailstorm that occurred over Taizhou(Zhejiang,China)on 19 March 2014.The 10-m surface wind data from automatic weather stations show that several meso-γvortices or vortex-like disturbances existed over the convergence zone and played a vital role in the evolution of the hailstorm and the location of the hail.The model results agree with the observations and present a closer correlation between the hail and the low-level meso-γvortices than those observed.The model simulation indicates that such low-level meso-γvortices can be used to predict the next 10-min hail fallout zone.The lowlevel meso-γvortices originated over the convergence zone and then fed back into the convergence field and provoked a stronger updraft.Vorticity was initiated primarily by stretching and was extended by tilting.A three-dimensional(3-D)flow analysis shows that the existence of low-level meso-γvortices could help enhance a local updraft.Furthermore,the simulation reveals that the low-level meso-γvortices formed in the bounded weak echo region(WER)at the front of the hail cell,enhancing convergence and strengthening updrafts.Graupel was broadly located between the 0°C isothermal line and the top of the clouds,roughly between the 0 and-20°C isothermal lines.Accordingly,the hailstones grew rapidly.The suitable environment and the positive effect of the meso-γvortices on the updrafts enabled hailstorm formation.