Numerical Study on Low-Reynolds Compressible Flows around Mars Helicopter Rotor Blade Airfoil

High-speed rotor rotation under the low-density condition creates a special low-Reynolds compressible flow around the rotor blade airfoil where the compressibility effect on the laminar separated shear layer occurs. However, the compressibility effect and shock wave generation associated with the increase in the Mach number (M) and the trend change due to their interference have not been clarified. The purpose is to clear the compressibility effect and its impact of shock wave generation on the flow field and aerodynamics. Therefore, we perform a two-dimensional unsteady calculation by Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis using the CLF5605 airfoil used in the Mars helicopter Ingenuity, which succeeded in its first flight on Mars. The calculation conditions are set to the Reynolds number (Re) at 75% rotor span in hovering (Re = 15,400), and the Mach number was varied from incompressible (M = 0.2) to transonic (M = 1.2). The compressible fluid dynamics solver FaSTAR developed by the Japan aerospace exploration agency (JAXA) is used, and calculations are performed under multiple conditions in which the Mach number and angle of attack (α) are swept. The results show that a flow field is similar to that in the Earth’s atmosphere above M = 1.0, such as bow shock at the leading edge, whereas multiple λ-type shock waves are observed over the separated shear layer above α = 3° at M = 0.80. However, no significant difference is found in the Cp distribution around the airfoil between M = 0.6 and M = 0.8. From the results, it is found that multiple λ-type shock waves have no significant effect on the airfoil surface pressure distribution, the separated shear layer effect is dominant in the surface pressure change and aerodynamic characteristics.

ON INFLUENCE OF KINEMATICS TO EQUIVALENT LINEAR DAMPING OF HELICOPTER BLADE HYDRAULIC DAMPER

An analytical model of hydraulic damper was presented in forward flight accounting for pitch/flap/lag kinematic coupling and its nonlinear force-velocity curve. The fourth order Runge-Kutta was applied to calculate the damper axial velocity in time domain. Fourier series based moving block analysis was applied to calculate equivalent linear damping in terms of transient responses of damper axial velocity. Results indicate that equivalent linear damping will be significantly reduced if pitch/flap/lag kinematic coupling introduced for notional model and flight conditions.

Aerodynamic Performance and Aeroacoustic Characteristics of Model Rotor with Anhedral Blade Tip in Hover

Experimental investigation on the aerodynamic performance and aeroacoustic characteristics of model rotors with different tip anhedral angles in hover are conducted in the paper.Three sets of model rotors with blade-tip anhedral angle 0°(reference rotor),20°and 45°respectively are designed to analyze the influence of the anhedral angle on the hovering performance and aeroacoustics of rotor.In the environment of anechoic chamber,the hover experiments under the different collective pitch and blade numbers,are carried out to measure the figure of merit(FM),time history of sound pressure and sound pressure level(SPL)of the three rotor models.Based on test results,the comparison and analysis of hovering performance and aeroacoustic characteristics among the three rotor models have been done.Meanwhile,for the sake of analysis,the rotor wake and blade pressure distribution are simulated by means of computational fluid method(CFD).At last,some conclusions about the effects of blade-tip anhedral angle on the aerodynamic performance and aeroacoustic characteristics in hover are obtained.An anhedral blade tip can enhance the FM of the rotor,and decrease the rotor loads noise to some extent.

High-fidelity simulation of blade vortex interaction of helicopter rotor based upon TENO scheme

Numerical simulation methods for unsteady vortex field of helicopter rotor with high resolution and low dissipation TENO8-AA primitive variables reconstruction schemes are established based on moving-embedded grid and Navier-Stokes equations.Firstly,the Targeted Essentially Non-Oscillatory(TENO)scheme are developed by employing ENO-like candidate stencil selection strategy,and the candidate stencil is adopted with optimal weight in smooth region while it is discarded completely in discontinuous region,which reduces the dissipation and dispersion errors and approaches better spectral properties.Then,the aerodynamic characteristics of Helishape-7A model rotor in Blade Vortex Interaction(BVI)state and the flowfield of Lynx rotor in hover are simulated,which validates that the blade tip vortex trajectory with larger wake age and more details of vortex can be captured by TENO8-AA scheme with only a quarter of grid points and half time comparing to WENO-JS scheme.Moreover,the simulation accuracy of thrust coefficient is improved by up to 36%.Finally,the analyses for BVI and aeroacoustic characteristics of Operational Loads Survey(OLS)rotor are conducted,and the different forms of interaction mechanism are explored,such as oblique and parallel interactions.The results indicate that TENO scheme not only ensures the resolution of simulation in discontinuous region,but also minimizes the numerical dissipation in smooth region dominated by blade tip vortex.Therefore,the acoustic pressure peak prediction error of rotor in BVI state is significantly reduced to 5.6%and 0.8%at two microphone locations,respectively.

A fully automated framework for helicopter rotor blades design and analysis including aerodynamics,structure, and manufacturing

This study describes an integrated framework in which basic aerospace engineering aspects(performance, aerodynamics, and structure) and practical aspects(configuration visualization and manufacturing) are coupled and considered in one fully automated design optimization of rotor blades. A number of codes are developed to robustly perform estimation of helicopter configuration from sizing, performance analysis, trim analysis, to rotor blades configuration representation. These codes are then integrated with a two-dimensional airfoil analysis tool to fully design rotor blades configuration including rotor planform and airfoil shape for optimal aerodynamics in both hover and forward flights. A modular structure design methodology is developed for realistic composite rotor blades with a sophisticated cross-sectional geometry. A D-spar cross-sectional structure is chosen as a baseline. The framework is able to analyze all realistic inner configurations including thicknesses of D-spar, skin, web, number and ply angles of layers of each composite part,and materials. A number of codes and commercial software(ANSYS, Gridgen, VABS, Pre VABS,etc.) are implemented to automate the structural analysis from aerodynamic data processing to sectional properties and stress analysis. An integrated model for manufacturing cost estimation ofcomposite rotor blades developed at the Aerodynamic Analysis and Design Laboratory(AADL),Aerospace Information Engineering Department, Konkuk University is integrated into the framework to provide a rapid and dynamic feedback to configuration design. The integration of three modules has constructed a framework where the size of a helicopter, aerodynamic performance analysis, structure analysis, and manufacturing cost estimation could be quickly investigated. All aspects of a rotor blade including planform, airfoil shape, and inner structure are considered in a multidisciplinary design optimization without an exception of critical configuration.

Aerodynamic design optimization of helicopter rotor blades including airfoil shape for hover performance

This study proposes a process to obtain an optimal helicopter rotor blade shape for aerodynamic performance in hover flight. A new geometry representation algorithm which uses the class function/shape function transformation （CST） is employed to generate airfoil coordinates. With this approach, airfoil shape is considered in terms of design variables. The optimization process is constructed by integrating several programs developed by author. The design variables include twist, taper ratio, point of taper initiation, blade root chord, and coefficients of the airfoil distribution function. Aerodynamic constraints consist of limits on power available in hover and forward flight. The trim condition must be attainable. This paper considers rotor blade configuration for the hover flight condition only, so that the required power in hover is chosen as the objective function of the optimization problem. Sensitivity analysis of each design variable shows that airfoil shape has an important role in rotor performance. The optimum rotor blade reduces the required hover power by 7.4% and increases the figure of merit by 6.5%, which is a good improvement for rotor blade design.

The Coupled CFD/Free-Wake Method for Numerical Prediction of Rotor BVI Noise

A coupled Navier-Stokes/free-wake method is developed to predict the rotor aerodynamics and wake.The widely-used Farassat 1 Aformulation is adopted to predict the rotor noise.In the coupled method,the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes(RANS)solver is established to simulate complex aerodynamic phenomena around blade and the tip-wake is captured by a free-wake model without numerical dissipation in the off-body wake zone.To overcome the time-consuming of the coupling strategy in previous studies,a more efficient coupling strategy is presented,by which only the induced velocity on the outer boundary grid need to be calculated.In order to obtain blade control settings,a delta trimming procedure is developed,which is more efficient than traditional trim method in the calculation of Jacobian matrix.Several flight conditions are simulated to demonstrate the validity of the coupled method.Then the rotor noise of operational load survey(OLS)is studied by the developed method as an application and the computational results are shown to be in good agreements with the available experimental data.

直升机小速度前飞状态下的振动机理研究

针对直升机在小速度前飞状态下振动偏大问题展开机理研究。采用自由尾迹模型计算小速度前飞状态下的旋翼桨涡干扰气动特征;推导了桨叶4自由度桨叶挥舞动力学结构有限元模型,以进行模态分析和结构参数影响分析;采用预定气动载荷法,建立桨叶挥舞动力学模型,分析桨叶结构动响应/载荷特征。研究结果表明,小速度状态下,气动载荷中桨涡干扰所致的频率为五倍旋翼转速的谐波成分是其振动问题的“外部”气动力源头;旋翼展向上根部大分布质量引起的惯性载荷是其振动问题的“内部”根源;两者的综合作用使得通过频率的旋翼动载荷高于基准旋翼,引起机体的异常振动。

直升机旋翼桨叶动力学/强度多学科优化设计

为解决板梁构型桨叶设计方案结构超重和疲劳寿命不足的问题,以旋翼桨叶剖面特性展向分布为设计变量,以桨叶频率配置、气弹稳定性和转动惯量为设计约束,组织多学科优化设计,实现减小桨叶结构重量,提高桨叶疲劳寿命并降低桨叶剖面动载荷的设计目标。取桨叶动载荷最大的高速前飞状态为设计点,采用文中构建的方法,成功实现了该桨叶的调频/减重/减振/提高疲劳寿命优化设计,优化后桨叶结构减重近10%,桨叶控制剖面的动应变降到许用值以下,满足了重量和疲劳寿命设计指标。

无人直升机旋翼桨叶设计及动力学特性分析

复合材料在桨叶上广泛应用的同时使桨叶的受力、刚度特性比传统的桨叶更为复杂。为了降低桨叶工作时动应力和旋翼的振动水平,有必要对旋翼桨叶进行动力学特性分析。对旋翼总体参数及桨叶气动参数进行设计,采用CFD方法对旋翼悬停状态进行气动特性分析,将桨叶三维非线性弹性模型分解为二维线性剖面模型和一维非线性梁模型进行动力学特性分析。结果表明:该旋翼能够成功拉起230 kg级无人直升机,悬停效率大于0.65,工作转速下桨叶的固有频率与8阶以下的气动激振力频率保持一定的范围,避开了转速共振区,满足桨叶动力学设计要求。

Development of swashplateless helicopter blade pitch control system using the limited angle direct-drive motor(LADDM)

It can be greatly beneficial to remove the swashplate of conventional helicopter, because the swashplate is usually complicated, aerodynamically resistive, and obstacle of more complex pitch control for improving performance. The present technologies for helicopter vibration reduction are usually narrow in effective range or requiring additional actuators and signal transfer links, and more effective technology is desired. Helicopter blade pitch control system, which is removed of swashplate and integrated high-frequency pitch control function for active vibration reduction, is likely the suitable solution at current technical level. Several potential implementation schemes are discussed, such as blades being directly or indirectly driven by actuators mounted in rotating frame and application of different types of actuators, especially implementation schemes of electro-mechanical actuator with or without gear reducer. It is found that swashplateless blade pitch control system based on specially designed limited angle direct-drive motor （LADDM） is a more practical implementation scheme. An experimental prototype of the finally selected implementation scheme has been designed, fabricated and tested on rotor tower. The test results show considerable feasibility of the swashplateless helicopter blade pitch control system using the LADDM.

基于WPT和t-SNE的直升机桨叶损伤特征提取

旋翼桨叶的损坏可能会导致直升机坠落损毁,开展桨叶健康状态的在线监测评估对保障飞行安全至关重要。提出一种将小波包变换(WPT)与t-分布随机近邻嵌入(t-SNE)相结合的桨叶损伤识别方法。首先利用振动台模拟直升机服役时的真实振动,用传感器获取不同故障桨叶模型在振动环境下的输出响应。然后对信号进行小波包分解,提取小波包能量作为原始特征向量,接着用流形学习对特征向量进行维数约简,最后输入到K近邻分类器进行故障识别。实验结果表明:首先,在原始特征选取方面,小波包能量特征优于时域特征与小波包能量组合成的混合特征;其次,t-SNE的降维效果优于PCA、Sammon映射、LTSA、HLLE、SNE这5种方法,且不受嵌入维数的制约。研究结果证明了所提出的方法能提高桨叶损伤评估的准确性。

Wind Power Potential in Interior Alaska from a Micrometeorological Perspective

The wind power potential in Interior Alaska is evaluated from a micrometeorological perspective. Based on the local balance equation of momentum and the equation of continuity we derive the local balance equation of kinetic energy for macroscopic and turbulent systems, and in a further step, Bernoulli’s equation and integral equations that customarily serve as the key equations in momentum theory and blade-element analysis, where the Lanchester-Betz-Joukowsky limit, Glauert’s optimum actuator disk, and the results of the blade-element analysis by Okulov and Sorensen are exemplarily illustrated. The wind power potential at three different sites in Interior Alaska (Delta Junction, Eva Creek, and Poker Flat) is assessed by considering the results of wind field predictions for the winter period from October 1, 2008, to April 1, 2009 provided by the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model to avoid time-consuming and expensive tall-tower observations in Interior Alaska which is characterized by a relatively low degree of infrastructure outside of the city of Fairbanks. To predict the average power output we use the Weibull distributions derived from the predicted wind fields for these three different sites and the power curves of five different propeller-type wind turbines with rated powers ranging from 2 MW to 2.5 MW. These power curves are represented by general logistic functions. The predicted power capacity for the Eva Creek site is compared with that of the Eva Creek wind farm established in 2012. The results of our predictions for the winter period 2008/2009 are nearly 20 percent lower than those of the Eva Creek wind farm for the period from January to September 2013.

旋翼桨-涡干扰噪声特性风洞试验研究

在中国航空工业空气动力研究院FL–10风洞中开展了旋翼桨–涡干扰噪声传播特性试验,对BO–105主旋翼40%缩比模型中等前飞速度爬升、平飞、斜下降状态的气动噪声进行了测量。首先采用Heyson洞壁干扰修正方法确定风洞试验时的旋翼下滑角,通过气流内测量阵列移动获得了桨盘平面下方完整的噪声辐射场,然后对不同飞行状态下的桨–涡干扰噪声传播特性进行了分析,得到了典型状态的声压–时间历程、频谱和声压级云图。结果表明:旋翼斜下降飞行状态出现了明显的桨–涡干扰噪声,干扰较强时桨叶前行侧和后行侧都会产生桨–涡干扰噪声,且其传播具有明显的方向性,即前行侧指向桨盘上游和桨盘下方,后行侧指向桨盘下游。

Numerical analysis on noise of rotor with unconventional blade tips based on CFD/Kirchhoff method

A solver is developed aiming at efficiently predicting rotor noise in hover and forward flight. In this solver, the nonlinear near-field solutions are calculated by a hybrid approach which includes the Navier–Stokes and Euler equations based on a moving-embedded grid system and adaptive grid methodology. A combination of the third-order upwind scheme and flux-difference splitting scheme, instead of the second-order center-difference scheme which may cause larger wake dissipation, has been employed in the present computational fluid dynamics （CFD） method. The sound pressure data in the near field can be calculated directly by solving the Navier–Stokes equations, and the sound propagation can be predicted by the Kirchhoff method. A harmonic expansion approach is presented for rotor far-field noise prediction, which gives an analytical expression for the integral function in the Kirchhoff formula. As a result, the interpolation process is simplified and the efficiency and accuracy of the interpolation are improved. Then, the high-speed impulsive （HIS） noise of a helicopter rotor at different tip Mach numbers and on different observers is calculated and analyzed in hover and forward flight, which shows a highly directional characteristic of the rotor HIS noise with a maximum value in the rotor plane, and the HSI noise weakens rapidly with the increasing of the directivity angle. In order to investigate the effects of the rotor blade-tip shape on its aeroacoustic characteristics, four kinds of blade tips are designed and their noise characteristics have been simulated. At last, a new unconventional CLOR-II blade tip has been designed, and the noise characteristics of the presented CLOR-II model rotor have been simulated and measured compared to the reference rotors with a rectangular or swept-back platform blade tip. The results demonstrate that the unconventional CLOR-II blade tip can significantly reduce the HSI noise of a rotor.

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF THE FLOW INDUCED BY ROTATING BLADES IN AN INCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS FLUID

Aerodynamic loads on a multi-bladed helicopter rotor in hovering flight were calculated by solving the three-dimensional incompressible Navier-Stokes equations. The rotor wake effects were accounted by the correction of local geometric angle of attack according to a free-wake modeling in addition to an empirical modification for the tip flow effect. The validity and efficiency of the present method were verified by the comparisons between numerical results and experimental data.

直升机旋翼微多普勒特性分析

近年来,对微多普勒效应的研究为目标的精确识别提供了一种新的途径,其在对直升机探测、分类和识别领域有着重要的应用前景。采用物理光学模型计算了直升机旋翼的雷达散射截面,改进了直升机旋翼回波的微多普勒模型。并基于该模型,分别计算了不同形状以及转速的双叶片、三叶片直升机旋翼的探测回波信号,利用短时傅里叶变换时频分析方法分析了微多普勒特征。研究结果表明,不同的直升机旋翼叶片数量、长度以及转速对直升机旋翼微多普勒的曲线形状、幅度以及周期产生不同的影响,为下一步对直升机的微多普勒识别提供了参考和借鉴。

改进型CLOR桨尖旋翼悬停状态气动噪声特性试验与预估分析

结合试验及数值模拟方法对具有改进型CLOR(CLOR-II)桨尖模型旋翼悬停状态气动噪声特性进行研究。在CLOR桨尖旋翼基础上,兼顾旋翼噪声特性和气动性能,对旋翼气动外形进行改进。为在获得高气动性能(大拉力)的同时限制旋翼气动噪声的过快增长,采用曲线前后掠组合、尖削及多种翼型分段配置等设计方法,以抑制跨声速流范围,达到降低气动噪声的目的。作为参考验证,文中还同时进行了相同实度的矩形桨叶、常规后掠新型桨尖的旋翼气动噪声特性的测量试验。考虑到传播距离和方向角(与桨盘平面的夹角)等因素对噪声辐射特性的影响,试验中对不同观测点的噪声进行了测量。同时为反映桨尖马赫数(压缩性)对旋翼噪声特性的影响,还测量了多种转速下的旋翼噪声特性。为充分分析新型桨尖旋翼的噪声特性,本文采用了基于CFD/Kirchhoff方法的旋翼噪声分析方法对试验中较难开展的高桨尖马赫数状态进行预估分析,分别给出了上述不同桨尖旋翼表面等马赫线、近场声压时间历程等跨声速流场细节。通过试验与数值分析,得出了关于CLOR-II型桨尖旋翼气动噪声特性的影响规律,与参考旋翼相比验证了该新型桨尖旋翼在提高气动性能的同时具有良好的噪声特性。

三维桨尖旋翼桨叶表面压力测量试验

研制了三维桨尖(抛物线后掠下反桨尖)4 m直径模型旋翼,并在旋翼试验台和大型低速风洞中完成了该模型旋翼的气动特性试验。采用了新的桨叶表面压力传感器布埋技术,有效地开展了三维桨尖旋翼桨叶表面非定常压力测量风洞试验。试验结果表明,下反桨尖的压力系数随方位角变化幅值比非下反桨尖的小,桨尖下反可以减弱桨-涡干扰,且随前进比增大,压力系数的峰值也增大。

直升机旋翼空气动力学的发展

本文分两大部分 ,即旋翼理论分析的发展 (认识旋翼 )及旋翼桨叶外形的发展 (改造旋翼 )。在第一部分中 ,阐述了旋翼滑流理论、叶素理论、涡流理论 (其中又包括固定尾迹的经典涡流理论、预定尾迹的半经验涡流理论、自由尾迹的现代涡流理论 )和旋翼 CFD方法。在第二部分中 ,讨论了旋翼桨叶的翼型、桨尖形状、扭转角分布等的变化历程。最后 ,作为总结 ,提出了旋翼理论分析和桨叶气动外形的四代发展阶段的划分。