Experimental and numerical study on dynamic mechanical behaviors of shale under true triaxial compression at high strain rate

High-energy gas fracturing of shale is a novel,high efficacy and eco-friendly mining technique,which is a typical dynamic perturbing behavior.To effectively extract shale gas,it is important to understand the dynamic mechanical properties of shale.Dynamic experiments on shale subjected to true triaxial compression at different strain rates are first conducted in this research.The dynamic stress-strain curves,peak strain,peak stress and failure modes of shale are investigated.The results of the study indicate that the intermediate principal stress and the minor principal stress have the significant influence on the dynamic mechanical behaviors,although this effect decreases as the strain rate increases.The characteristics of compression-shear failure primarily occur in shale subjected to triaxial compression at high strain rates,which distinguishes it from the fragmentation characteristics observed in shale under dynamic uniaxial compression.Additionally,a numerical three-dimensional Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar(3D-SHPB),which is established by coupling PFC3D and FLAC3D methods,is validated to replicate the laboratory characteristics of shale.The dynamic mechanical characteristics of shale subjected to different confining stresses are systematically investigated by the coupling PFC3D and FLAC3D method.The numerical results are in good agreement with the experimental data.

Flow behavior and microstructure of ZK60 magnesium alloy compressed at high strain rate

Flow behavior and microstructure of a homogenized ZK60 magnesium alloy were investigated during compression in the temperature range of 250-400 ℃ and the strain rate range of 0.1-50 s^-1. The results showed that dynamic recrystallization （DRX） developed mainly at grain boundaries at lower strain rate （0.1-1 s^-1）, while in the case of higher strain rate （10-50 s^-1）, DRX occurred extensively both at twins and grain boundaries at all temperature range, especially at temperature lower than 350 ℃, which resulted in a more homogeneous microstructure than that under other deformation conditions. The DRX extent determines the hot workability of the workpiece, therefore, hot deformation at the strain rate of 10-50 s^-1 and in the temperature range of 250-350 ℃ was desirable for ZK60 alloy. Twin induced DRX during high strain rate compression included three steps. Firstly, twins with high dislocation subdivided the initial grain, then dislocation arrays subdivided the twins into subgrains, and after that DRX took place with a further increase of strain.

HIGH STRAIN RATE SU PERPLASTICITY IN SiCp REINFORCED AZ31 MAGNESIUM MATRIX COMPOSITE

Superplasticity of AZ 31 magnesium matrix composites reinforced with 10 vol% SiC（2 μm） particulate i s investigated at temperature range from 365℃ to 565℃ and strain rate from 2.0 8×10-3 to 5.21×10-1 s-1. The maximum total elongation of 228 % is obtained at a strain rate of 2.08×10-1 s-1. The strain rate se nsitivity exponent （m） higher than 0.3, is observed when the strain rate is high er than 10-1 s-1 at 525℃. Increasing the test temperature to 540℃, the maximum total elongation exceeding 195% is achieved at a higher strain rate of 5.21×10-1 s-1 than that at 525℃. SiC in AZ31/SiCp composite ca n fine the matrix grain size. Filament is observed on the fracture surface of th e specimens showing superplasticity.

Dynamic tensile properties and microstructural evolution of extruded EW75 magnesium alloy at high strain rates

The dynamic tensile properties and microstructural evolution of an extruded EW75 magnesium alloy deformed at ambient temperature and different high strain rates(from 1000 to 3000 s^(-1))along extrusion direction(ED)were investigated by Split Hopkinson Tension Bar(SHTB).The corresponding deformation mechanisms,texture evolution and microstructure changes were analyzed by optical microscope(OM),electron backscatter diffraction(EBSD)and transmission electron microscope(TEM).The results show that the extruded EW75 magnesium alloy along ED exhibits a conventional positive strain rate sensitivity that the dynamic flow stresses increase with in creasing strain rate.Texture measurements show that after dynamic tension,the initial weak texture of extruded EW75 magnesium alloy tansforms to a relatively strong<10-10>//ED texture with increasing strain rates.The microstructural analysis demonstrates that dislocation motion are main deformatin mode to accommodate dynamic tensile deformation at high strain rates.In addition,the interactions of dislocation-dislocation and dislocation-second phase lead to the in crease of flow stress and strain hardening with increasing strain rate.

Dynamic compressive property and failure behavior of extruded Mg-Gd-Y alloy under high temperatures and high strain rates

For the purpose of investigating the dynamic deformational behavior and failure mechanisms of magnesium under high strain rates,the Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar(SHPB)was used for investigating dynamic mechanical properties of extruded Mg-Gd-Y Magnesium alloy at ambient temperature(300 K),200℃(473 K)and 300℃(573 K)temperature.The samples after compression were analyzed by scanning electron microscope(SEM)and metallographic microscope.Dynamic mechanical properties,crack performance and plastic deformation mechanism of extruded Mg-Gd-Y Magnesium alloy along the extrusion direction(ED)were discussed.The results show that,extruded Mg-Gd-Y Magnesium alloy has the largest dynamic compressive strength which is 535 MPa at ambient temperature(300 K)and strain rate of 2826 s^(−1).When temperature increases,dynamic compressive strength decreases,while ductility increases.The dynamic compression fracture mechanism of extruded Mg-Gd-Y Magnesium alloy is multi-crack propagation and intergranular quasi-cleavage fracture at both ambient temperature and high temperature.The dynamic compressive deformation mechanism of extruded Mg-Gd-Y Magnesium alloy is a combination of twinning,slipping and dynamic recrystallization at both ambient temperature and high temperature.

High strain rate compressive strength behavior of cemented paste backfill using split Hopkinson pressure bar

The stability of cemented paste backfill(CPB)is threatened by dynamic disturbance,but the conventional low strain rate laboratory pressure test has difficulty achieving this research purpose.Therefore,a split Hopkinson pressure bar(SHPB)was utilized to investigate the high strain rate compressive behavior of CPB with dynamic loads of 0.4,0.8,and 1.2 MPa.And the failure modes were determined by macro and micro analysis.CPB with different cement-to-tailings ratios,solid mass concentrations,and curing ages was prepared to conduct the SHPB test.The results showed that increasing the cement content,tailings content,and curing age can improve the dynamic compressive strength and elastic modulus.Under an impact load,a higher strain rate can lead to larger increasing times of the dynamic compressive strength when compared with static loading.And the dynamic compressive strength of CPB has an exponential correlation with the strain rate.The macroscopic failure modes indicated that CPB is more seriously damaged under dynamic loading.The local damage was enhanced,and fine cracks were formed in the interior of the CPB.This is because the CPB cannot dissipate the energy of the high strain rate stress wave in a short loading period.

High strain rate superplasticity of rolled AZ91 magnesium alloy

The high strain rate superplastic deformation properties and characteristics of a rolled AZ91 magnesium alloy at temperatures ranging from 623 to 698 K（0.67Tm-0.76Tm） and high strain rates ranging from 10^-3 to 1 s^-1 were investigated.The rolled AZ91 magnesium alloy possesses excellent superplasticity with the maximum elongation of 455% at 623 K and a strain rate of 10-3 s-1,and its strain rate sensitivity m is high up to 0.64.The dominant deformation mechanism responsible for the high strain rate superplasticity is still grain boundary sliding（GBS）,and the dislocation creep mechanism is considered as the main accommodation mechanism.

Dynamic recrystallization,texture and mechanical properties of high Mg content Al−Mg alloy deformed by high strain rate rolling

The Al−Mg alloy with high Mg addition(Al−9.2Mg−0.8Mn−0.2Zr-0.15Ti,in wt.%)was subjected to different passes(1,2 and 4)of high strain rate rolling(HSRR),with the total thickness reduction of 72%,the rolling temperature of 400℃and strain rate of 8.6 s^(−1).The microstructure evolution was studied by optical microscope(OM),scanning electron microscope(SEM),electron backscattered diffraction(EBSD)and transmission electron microscope(TEM).The alloy that undergoes 2 passes of HSRR exhibits an obvious bimodal grain structure,in which the average grain sizes of the fine dynamic recrystallization(DRX)grains and the coarse non-DRX regions are 6.4 and 47.7mm,respectively.The high strength((507±9)MPa)and the large ductility((24.9±1.3)%)are obtained in the alloy containing the bimodal grain distribution.The discontinuous dynamic recrystallization(DDRX)mechanism is the prominent grain refinement mechanism in the alloy subjected to 2 passes of HSRR.

ON THE TENSILE MECHANICAL PROPERTY OF Si-Mn TRIP STEELS AT HIGH STRAIN RATE

Tensile mechanical properties of 1.6Si-1.58Mn-0.195C TRIP (transformation-induced plasticity) steels under high strain rate and effects of DP (dual-phase) treatments were studied and compared to the quasi-static tensile behavior. The results show that the increasing of strain rate leads to increasing in their strengths and decreasing in the uniform elongation remarkably. Because the stable retained austenite in TRIP steel can transform to martensite during tensile testing and the material exhibits excellent characteristic of transformation induced plasticity, the plastic deformation behavior is evidently improved and the combination of strength and elongation is superior to that of dual-phase steel, although its strength is smaller than that of DP steel. However, DP treated steel shown lower elongation under dynamic tension in spite of higher strength. A model was proposed to explain the excellent elongation rate of TRIP steel compared with DP steel on the basis of SEM analysis and the strength of the components in microstructure.

Influences of Stress Wave Propagation upon Studying Dynamic Response of Materials at High Strain Rates

How the wave propagation analysis plays a key role in the studies of dynamic response of materials at high strain rates is analyzed. For the wave propagation technique, the followings are important: the loading and unloading constitutive relation presumed, the positions of the sensors embedded, the interactions between loading waves and unloading waves. For the split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) technique, the assumption of one-dimensional stress wave propagation and the assumption of stress uniformity along the specimen should be satisfied. When the larger diameter bars are employed, the wave dispersion effects should be considered, including the high frequency oscillations, non-uniform stress distribution across the bar section, increase of rise time, and amplitude attenuation. The stress uniformity along the specimen is influenced by the reflection times in specimen, the wave impedance ratio of the specimen and the bar, and the waveform.

HIGH STRAIN RATE SUPERPLASTICITY IN A SiC_w/2024Al COMPOSITE MADE BY SQUEEZE CASTING

In this paper,the superplastic characteristics of the beta-SiC whisker reinforced 2024aluminum composite, fabricated by squeeze casting and hot-rolling after extrusion were investigated. The compsite had a fine grain size of about 2μm, and exhibited a strain rate sensitivity of about 0.35 and a maximum elongation of 350% at an initial strain rate of 1.1×10-1s-1 at 803K. In addition, the superplastic deformation mechanisme of the composite were also examined.

Strain-Rate Dependency of a Unidirectional Filament Wound Composite under Compression

This article presents the results of experimental studies concerning the dynamic deformation and failure of a unidirectional carbon fiber reinforced plastic(T700/LY113)under compression.The test samples were manufactured through the filament winding of flat plates.To establish the strain rate dependencies of the strength and elastic modulus of the material,dynamic tests were carried out using a drop tower,the Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar method,and standard static tests.The samples were loaded both along and perpendicular to the direction of the reinforcing fiber.The applicability of the obtained samples for static and dynamic tests was confirmed through finite elementmodeling and the high-speed imaging of the deformation and failure of samples during testing.As a result of the conducted experimental studies,static and dynamic stress-strain curves,time dependencies of deformation and the stress and strain rates of the samples during compression were obtained.Based on these results,the strain rate dependencies of the strength and elasticity modulus in the strain rate range of 0.001-6001/s are constructed.It is shown that the strain rate significantly affects the strength and deformation characteristics of the unidirectional carbon fiber composites under compression.An increase in the strain rate by 5 orders of magnitude increased the strength and elastic modulus along the fiber direction by 42%and 50%,respectively.Perpendicular loading resulted in a strength and elastic modulus increase by 58%and 50%,respectively.The average strength along the fibers at the largest studied strain rate was about 1000MPa.The obtained results can be used to design structural elements made of polymer composite materials operating under dynamic shock loads,as well as to build models of mechanical behavior and failure criteria of such materials,taking into account the strain rate effects.

Twin recrystallization mechanisms in a high strain rate compressed Mg-Zn alloy

Static recrystallization of a high strain rate compressed Mg-1 Zn(wt.%)alloy was investigated using electron backscattered diffraction(EBSD).A novel 53°1010 structure was observed in the as-deformed alloy,which showed a{1012}-{1012}double twin relationship with the matrix.When the as-deformed alloy was annealed at 200°C,the{1011}compression twins and{1011}-{1012}double twins showed a higher priority to recrystallize.In addition,the coarse{1012}tension twins and their inner double twins were preferentially to recrystallize,while the lenticular tension twins had little impact on the recrystallization.Therefore,obtaining more compression twins or coarse twins instead of lenticular tension twins can be an effective approach to manipulate recrystallization process in deformed Mg alloys.

High strain rate superplasticity of SiC whisker reinforced pure aluminum composites

A β SiC whisker reinforced pure aluminum composites expected to exhibit high strain rate superplasticity has been successfully fabricated by a new processing route consisting of pressure infiltration, extrusion with a low extrusion ratio and rolling. The composites exhibite a total elongation of 220%～380% in the initial strain rates within 1.0×10 -2 ～1.0×10 -1 s -1 and at 893～903 K. According to differential thermal analysis(DTA) and microstructure observation, it is concluded that an appropriately small amount of liquid phase is necessary to cause a good high strain rate superplasticity in aluminum matrix composites in addition to fine and uniform microstructure.

Deformation mechanism of fine grained Mg-7Gd-5Y-l.2Nd-0.5Zr alloy under high temperature and high strain rates

Fine grained Mg-7Gd-5Y-1.2Nd-0.5Zr alloy was investigated by dynamic compression tests using a Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar under the strain rates in the range 1000-2000 s^(-1) and the temperature range 293-573 K along the normal direction.The microstructure was measured by optical microscopy,electron back-scattering diffraction,transmission electron microscopy and X-ray diffractometry.The results showed that Mg-7Gd-5Y-1.2Nd-0.5Zr alloy had the positive strain rate strengthening effect and thermal softening effect at high temperature.The solid solution of Gd and Y atoms in Mg-7Gd-5Y-1.2Nd-0.5Zr alloy reduced the asymmetry of α-Mg crystals and changed the critical shear stress of various deformation mechanisms.The main deformation mechanisms were prismatic slip and pyramidal(a)slip,{102}tension twinning,and dynamic recrystallization caused by local deformation such as particle-stimulated nucleation.c 2020 Published by Elsevier B.V.on behalf of Chongqing University.

MICROSTRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH- STRAIN-RATE PLASTIC DEFORMATION IN THE ELECTROFORMED COPPER LINER OF SHAPED CHARGES

The microstructures of electroformed copper liners of shaped charges that had undergone high-strain-rate deformation were observed by optical microscopy （OM） and scanning electron microscopy （SEM）. Meanwhile, the orientation distribution of the grains in the recovered jet was examined by electron backscattering Kikuchi pattern （EBSP） technique. EBSP analysis reveals that the fibrous texture observed in the as-electroformed copper liners disappeared after explosive detonation deformation. OM observation shows that the microstructure evolves system- atically from the jet center to its perimeter during cooling from high temperatures after explosive detonation deformation. This microstructural characteristic is similar to that of solidification, i.e. there exist equiaxed grains in the center of the jet and significant columnar grains around the equiaxed grains. The result reveals that there is melting-related phenomenon in the jet center. Corresponding microhardness variations from the jet center to its perimeter is also determined. All the phenomena can be explained by a strong gradient of temperature across the section of the jet during plastic deformation at high-strain-rate.

Comparison of microstructures in electroformed and spin-formed copper liners of shaped charge undergone high-strain-rate deformation

The as-formed and post-deformed microstructures in both electroformed and spin-formed copper liners of shaped charge were studied by optical microscopy(OM), electron backscattering Kikuchi patterns(EBSP) technique and transmission electron microscopy(TEM). The deformation was carried out at an ultra-high strain rate. OM analysis shows that the initial grains of the electroformed copper liner are finer than those of the spin-formed copper liners. Meanwhile, EBSP analysis reveals that the fiber texture exists in the electroformed copper liners, whereas there is no texture observed in the spin-formed copper liners before deformation. Having undergone high-strain-rate deformation the grains in the recovered slugs, which are transformed from both the electroformed and spin-formed copper liners, all become small. TEM observations of the above two kinds of post-deformed specimens show the existence of cellular structures characterized by tangled dislocations and subgrain boundaries consisting of dislocation arrays. These experimental results indicate that dynamic recovery and recrystallization play an important role in the high-strain-rate deformation process.

Effect of Microstructure in TRIP Steel on Its Tensile Behavior at High Strain Rate

The relationships between microstructure of 0.195C-1.6Si-1.58 Mn TRIP steel and its dynamic mechanical properties at high strain rate were investigated.The effect of microstructures on dynamic properties was discussed and the comparison with its static mechanical properties was also presented.The specimens of TRIP steel via three heat treatment techniques exhibit different morphological structures,responsible for their dynamic mechanical performances.The dynamic tensile testing was performed on self-made pneumatic tensile impact tester.The results showed that the size,volume fraction,morphology and distribution of retained austenite all affect the final mechanical properties at high strain rate.Among them,the second phase(retained austenite + bainite) with net structure severely decreases the elongation of TRIP steel in spite of the fact that it enhances strength because it restrains ferrite deformation.In order to obtain the excellent combination of strength and elongation,rational matching of morphology,size and volume fraction of several phases in TRIP steel can be obtained via proper heat treatment techniques.

Plastic Flow Modeling of Ti-5 Al-2 Sn-2 Zr-4 Mo-4 Cr Alloy at Elevated Temperatures and High Strain Rates

The true stress-sWain relationships of Ti-5A1-2Sn-2Zr-4Mo-4Cr（TC17） alloy with a wide range of strain rates were investigated by tmiaxial quasi-static and dynamic compression tests, respectively. Quasi- static compression tests were carried out with Instron 8874 test machine, while dynamic compression tests were performed with the split Hopkinson pressure bar （SHPB） which was installed with heating device and synchro- assembly system. The dynamic mechanical behaviors tests of TC17 were carded out from room temperature to 800 ℃ at intervals of 200 ℃ and at high sWain rates （5 500-1 9200 s-l）. The stress-strain curves considering temperature-sWain rate coupling actions were obtained. The Johnson-Cook constitutive model was developed through data fitting of the stress-sWain curves. The material constants in the developed constitutive model can be determined using isothermal and adiabatic stress-strain curves at different strain rates. The Johnson-Cook constitutive model provided satisfied prediction of the plastic flow stress for TC17 alloy.

HIGH STRAIN RATE SUPERPLASTICITY OF DISCONTINUOUSC ERAMIC FIBER REINFORCED ALUMINUM COMPOSITES

β-Si3N4 whisker reinforced aluminum composites was fabricated by squeeze casting before extrusion and an effect of content of Mg on the High Strain Rate Superplastic- ity (HSRS) were investigated, The optimum temperature of the composites at which maximum total elongation is obtained decreases according to magnesium content and the β-Si_3N_4w/Al-3Mg exhibits the total elongation of about 200% at the strain rate of 10^(-1) s^(-1) and at 853-858 K, although the β-Si_3N_4w/Al-0Mg composite shows about 100% elongation at the strain rate of about 1×10^(-1) s^(-1) at 903-913 K. Optimum strain rate of the composites fabricated by squeeze casting was about 1×10^(-1) s^(-1) but TEM observation indicates that the β-Si_3N_4w/Al-Mg has a fine grain of about 2- 3μm and that the whisker might no react with Mg at the interfaces, although the β-Si_3N_4 whisker react with aluminum matrix.