Abdominal compartment syndrome in patients with severe acute pancreatitis in early stage

AIM: To study retrospectively the influence of intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) and abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) in patients with early acute pancreatitis (AP) (during the first week after admission) on physiological functions, and the association of the presence of IAH/ACS and outcome. METHODS: Patients (n = 74) with AP recruited in this study were divided into two groups according to intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) determined by indirect measurement using the transvesical route via Foley bladder catheter during the first week after admission. Patients (n = 44) with IAP ≥ 12 mmHg were assigned in IAH group, and the remaining patients (n = 30) with IAP < 12 mmHg in normal IAP group. For analysis of the influence of IAH/ACS on organ function and outcome, the physiological parameters and the occurrence of organ dysfunction during intensive care unit (ICU) stay were recorded, as were the incidences of pancreatic infection and in-hospital mortality. RESULTS: IAH within the first week after admission was found in 44 patients (59.46%). Although the APACHE Ⅱ scores on admission and the Ranson scores within 48 h after hospitalization were elevated in IAH patients in early stage, they did not show the statistically significant differences from patients with normal IAP within a week after admission (16.18 ± 3.90 vs 15.70 ± 4.25, P = 0.616; 3.70 ± 0.93 vs 3.47 ± 0.94, P = 0.285, respectively). ACS in early AP was recorded in 20 patients (27.03%). During any 24-h period ofthe first week after admission, the recorded mean IAP correlated significantly with the Marshall score calculated at the same time interval in IAH group (r = 0.635, P < 0.001). Although ACS patients had obvious amelioration in physiological variables within 24 h after decompression, the incidences of pancreatitic infection, septic shock, multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) and death in the patients with ACS were significantly higher than that in other patients without ACS (pancreatitic infection: 60.0% vs 7.4%, P < 0.001; septic shock: 70.0% vs 11.1%, P < 0.001; MODS: 90.0% vs 31.5%, P < 0.001; mortality: 75.0% vs 3.7%, P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: IAH/ACS is a frequent finding in patients admitted to the ICU because of AP. Patients with IAP at approximately 10-12 mmHg and early signs of changes in physiologic variables should be seriously considered for urgent decompression to improve survival.

Early recognition of abdominal compartment syndrome in patients with acute pancreatitis

AIM： To assess the value of widely used clinical scores in the early identification of acute pancreatitis （AP） patients who are likely to suffer from intra-abdominal hypertension （IAH） and abdominal compartment syndrome （ACS）.METHODS： Patients （η = 44） with AP recruited in this study were divided into two groups （ACS and non-ACS） according to intra-abdominal pressure （IAP） determined by indirect measurement using the transvesical route via Foley bladder catheter. On admission and at regular intervals, the severity of the AP and presence of organ dysfunction were assessed utilizing different multifactorial prognostic systems： Glasgow-Imrie score, Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation Ⅱ （APACHE-Ⅱ） score, and Multiorgan Dysfunction Score （MODS）. The diagnostic performance of scores predicting ACS development, cut-off values and specificity and sensitivity were established using receiver operating characteristic （ROC） curve analysis.RESULTS： The incidence of ACS in our study population was 19.35%. IAP at admission in the ACS group was 22.0 （18.5-25.0） mmHg and 9.25 （3.0-12.4） mmHg in the non-ACS group （P 〈 0.01）. Univariate statistical analysis revealed that patients in the ACS group had significantly higher multifactorial clinical scores （APACHE Ⅱ, Glasgow-Imrie and MODS） on admission and higher maximal scores during hospitalization （P 〈 0.01）. ROC curve analysis revealed that APACHE Ⅱ, Glasgow-Imrie, and MODS are valuable tools for early prediction of ACS with high sensitivity and specificity, and that cut-off values are similar to those used for stratification of patients with severe acute pancreatitis （SAP）.CONCLUSION： IAH and ACS are rare findings in patients with mild AR Based on the results of our study we recommend measuring the IAP in cases when patients present with SAP （APACHE Ⅱ 〉 7; MODS 〉 2 or Glasgow-Imrie score 〉 3）.

Surgical decompression for the management of abdominal compartment syndrome with severe acute pancreatitis: A narrative review

Intra-abdominal hypertension(IAH)and abdominal compartment syndrome(ACS)play a pivotal role in the pathophysiology of severe acute pancreatitis(SAP)and contribute to new-onset and persistent organ failure.The optimal management of ACS involves a multi-disciplinary approach,from its early recognition to measures aiming at an urgent reduction of intra-abdominal pressure(IAP).A targeted literature search from January 1,2000,to November 30,2022,revealed 20 studies and data was analyzed on the type and country of the study,patient demographics,IAP,type and timing of surgical procedure performed,post-operative wound management,and outcomes of patients with ACS.There was no randomized controlled trial published on the topic.Decom-pressive laparotomy is effective in rapidly reducing IAP(standardized mean difference=2.68,95%confidence interval:1.19-1.47,P<0.001;4 studies).The morbidity and complications of an open abdomen after decompressive laparotomy should be weighed against the inadequately treated but,potentially lethal ACS.Disease-specific patient selection and the role of less-invasive decompressive measures,like subcutaneous linea alba fasciotomy or component separation techniques,is lacking in the 2013 consensus management guidelines by the Abdominal Compartment Society on IAH and ACS.This narrative review focuses on the current evidence regarding surgical decompression techniques for managing ACS in patients with SAP.However,there is a lack of high-quality evidence on patient selection,timing,and modality of surgical decompression.Large prospective trials are needed to identify triggers and effective and safe surgical decompression methods in SAP patients with ACS.

Abdominal compartment syndrome:Often overlooked conditions in medical intensive care units

Intra-abdominal hypertension(IAH)and abdominal compartment syndrome are well recognized entities among surgical patients.Nevertheless,a number of prospective and retrospective observational studies have shown that IAH is prevalent in about half of the critically ill patients in the medical intensive care units(ICU)and has been widely recognized as an independent risk factor for mortality.It is alarming to note that many members of the critical care team in medical ICU are not aware of the consequences of untreated IAH and the delay in making the diagnosis leads to increased morbidity and mortality.Frequently it is underdiagnosed and undertreated in this patient population.Elevated intraabdominal pressure decreases the blood flow to the kidneys and other abdominal viscera and also results in reduced cardiac output and difficulties in ventilating the patient because of increased intrathoracic pressure.When intraabdominal hypertension is not promptly recognized and treated,it leads to abdominal compartment syndrome,multiorgan dysfunction syndrome and death.Large volume fluid resuscitation is very common in medical ICU patients presenting with sepsis,shock and other inflammatory conditions like pancreatitis and it is one of the major risk factors for the development of intra-abdominal hypertension.This article presents an overview of the epidemiology,definitions,risk factors,pathophysiology and management of IAH and abdominal compartment syndrome in critically ill medical ICU patients.

Abdominal compartment syndrome among surgical patients

Abdominal compartment syndrome(ACS)develops when organ failure arises secondary to an increase in intraabdominal pressure.The abdominal pressure is determined by multiple factors such as blood pressure,abdominal compliance,and other factors that exert a constant pressure within the abdominal cavity.Several conditions in the critically ill may increase abdominal pressure compromising organ perfusion that may lead to renal and respiratory dysfunction.Among surgical and trauma patients,aggressive fluid resuscitation is the most commonly reported risk factor to develop ACS.Other conditions that have also been identified as risk factors are ascites,hemoperitoneum,bowel distention,and large tumors.All patients with abdominal trauma possess a higher risk of developing intra-abdominal hypertension(IAH).Certain surgical interventions are reported to have a higher risk to develop IAH such as damage control surgery,abdominal aortic aneurysm repair,and liver transplantation among others.Close monitoring of organ function and intra-abdominal pressure(IAP)allows clinicians to diagnose ACS rapidly and intervene with target-specific management to reduce IAP.Surgical decompression followed by temporary abdominal closure should be considered in all patients with signs of organ dysfunction.There is still a great need for more studies to determine the adequate timing for interventions to improve patient outcomes.

Study of intra-abdominal hypertension prevalence and awareness level among experienced ICU medical staff

Background:Intra-abdominal hypertension(IAH) is a disease with high morbidity and mortality among critically ill patients.The study's objectives were to explore the prevalence of IAH and physicians' awareness of the 2013 World Society of Abdominal Compartment Syndrome(WSACS) guidelines in Chinese intensive care units(ICUs).Methods:A cross-sectional study of four ICUs in Southwestern China was conducted from June 17 to August 2,2014.Adult patients admitted to the ICU for more than 24 h,with bladder catheter but without obvious intravesical pressure(IVP) measurement contraindications,were recruited.Intensivists with more than 5 years of ICU working experience were also recruited.Epidemiological information,potential IAH risk factors,IVP measurements and questionnaire results were recorded.Results:Forty-one patients were selected.Fifteen(36.59%) had IVP?12mm Hg.SOFA(Sequential Organ Failure Assessment) hepatic and neurological sub-scores were utilized as independent predictors for IAH via logistic backward analysis.Thirty-seven intensivists participated in the survey(response rate:80.43%).The average score of each center was less than 35 points.All physicians believed the IAH prevalence in their departments was no more than 20.00%.A significant negative correlation was observed between the intensivists' awareness of the 2013 WSACS guidelines and the IAH prevalence in each center(r=-0.975,P=0.025).Conclusion:The prevalence and independent predictors of IAH among the surveyed population are similar to the reports in the literature.Intensivists generally have a low awareness of the 2013 WSACS guidelines.A systematic guideline training program is vital for improving the efficiency of the diagnosis and treatment of IAH.

Current recognition and management of intra-abdominal hypertension and abdominal compartment syndrome among tertiary Chinese intensive care physicians

This survey was designed to clarify the current understanding and clinical management of intra-abdominal hypertension （IAH）/abdominal compartment syndrome （ACS） among intensive care physicians in tertiary Chinese hospitals. A postal twenty-question questionnaire was sent to 141 physicians in different intensive care units （ICUs）. A total of 108 （76.6%） questionnaires were returned. Among these, three quarters worked in combined medical-surgical ICUs and nearly 80% had primary training in internal or emergency medicine. Average ICU beds, annual admission, ICU length of stay, acute physiology and chronic health evaluation （APACHE）II score, and mortality were 18.2 beds, 764.5 cases, 8.3 d, 19.4, and 21.1%, respectively. Of the respondents, 30.6% never measured intra-abdominal pressure （IAP）. Although the vast majority of the ICUs adopted the exclusively transvesicular method, the over- whelming majority （88.0%） only measured lAP when there was a clinical suspicion of IAH/ACS and only 29.3% measured either often or routinely. Moreover, 84.0% used the wrong priming saline volume while 88.0% zeroed at reference points which were not in consistence with the standard method for lAP monitoring recommended by the World Society of Abdominal Compartment Syndrome. ACS was suspected mainly when there was a distended ab- domen （92%）, worsening oliguria （80%）, and increased ventilatory support requirement （68%）. Common causes for IAH/ACS were ＂third-spacing from massive volume resuscitation in different settings＂ （88%）, ＂intra-abdominal bleeding＂, and ＂liver failure with ascites＂ （52% for both）. Though 60% respondents would recommend surgical decompression when the lAP exceeded 25 mmHg, accompanied by signs of organ dysfunction, nearly three quarters of re- spondents preferred diuresis and dialysis. A total of 68% of respondents would recommend paracentesis in the treatment for ACS. In conclusion, urgent systematic education is absolutely necessary for most intensive care physicians in China to help to establish clear diagnostic criteria and appropriate management for these common, but life-threatening, diseases.

Elevated intra-abdominal pressure:A review of current knowledge

Elevated intra-abdominal pressure(IAP)is a known cause of increased morbidity and mortality among critically ill patients.Intra-abdominal hypertension(IAH)and abdominal compartment syndrome can lead to rapid deterioration of organ function and the development of multiple organ failure.Raised IAP affects every system and main organ in the human body.Even marginally sustained IAH results in malperfusion and may disrupt the process of recovery.Yet,despite being so common,this potentially lethal condition often goes unnoticed.In 2004,the World Society of the Abdominal Compartment Syndrome,an international multidisciplinary consensus group,was formed to provide unified definitions,improve understanding and promote research in this field.Simple,reliable and nearly costless standardized methods of non-invasive measurement and monitoring of bladder pressure allow early recognition of IAH and timely optimized management.The correct,structured approach to treatment can have a striking effect and fully restore homeostasis.In recent years,significant progress has been made in this area with the contribution of surgeons,internal medicine specialists and anesthesiologists.Our review focuses on recent advances in order to present the complex underlying pathophysiology and guidelines concerning diagnosis,monitoring and treatment of this life-threatening condition.

提高腹腔灌注压治疗腹腔高压致急性肾损伤的实验研究

目的评价提高腹腔灌注压（APP）治疗对腹腔高压（IAH）致急性肾损伤（AKI）是否具有保护和治疗作用并探索可能的机制。方法将12只健康小香猪，随机分为实验组和对照组（每组各6只），两组动物均在全麻后收集单位时间的尿量，连续监测平均动脉压（MAP），并用激光多普勒血流灌注成像仪监测肾脏表面灌注；采用二氧化碳（CO2）气腹法建立IAH模型，连续监测腹腔内压（IAP），测得并记录MAP、IAP和APP；两组动物IAP均从基线逐步升高至10、15、20和25mmHg，然后在25mmHg水平维持8h后处死动物行。肾组织病理学检查。实验组动物在IAP25mmHg维持15min后静脉泵入去甲肾上腺素以维持APP于基线水平为治疗目标，对照组无干预，监测两组动物肾脏表面灌注、SCr、TNF—d、IL-6和尿IL-18随IAP的变化状况。结果随着IAP的升高，两组动物肾脏表面灌注均明显下降（P〈0．05）；对照组SCr和尿IL-18在IAP25mmHg维持8h后明显升高（P〈0．05），尿量明显减少，血清TNF—a、IL-6明显升高（P〈0．05）。实验组实施目标性APP后，肾脏表面灌注明显改善（P〈0．05），SCr及尿IL-18较对照组明显下降（P〈0．05），尿量明显增加（P〈0．05），而血TNF-a、IL-6较对照组差异无统计学意义（P〉0．05）。两组肾脏病理学检查均表现为皮质。肾小球肿大，肾小管水肿，差异不明显。结论在IAH25mmHg维持8h能导致AKI，提高APP治疗不影响全身炎症反应，而是通过改善肾脏灌注发挥肾保护作用。

超声造影评价腹腔高压状态下肾脏灌注的实验研究

目的 评价超声造影能否用于评价腹腔高压（IAH）状态下肾脏灌注的改变.方法 采用气腹法建立IAH模型,连续膀胱内压测定腹腔内压（IAP）,获得基线平均动脉压（MAP）、腹腔内压和腹腔灌注压.将12只健康的小香猪腹腔内压自基线梯度性升高至10 mm Hg、15mm Hg、20 mm Hg和25 mm Hg,于每个压力梯度监测肾脏表面灌注采用激光多普勒血流灌注成像（laser Doppler perfusion imaging,LDPI）和超声造影.结果 IAP逐渐升高至25 mm Hg,相对于基线,超声造影冲入时间（WIT）和达峰值时间（TTP）明显增加（P＜0.05）,但峰值强度（PI）、上升斜率（WIS）和AUC（曲线下面积）明显下降（P＜0.05）.肾脏表面灌注单位（PU）值随腹压增高明显下降（P＜0.05）与腹腔灌注压（APP）呈中度相关（r=0.74,P＜0.05）.分析不同腹腔压力下肾脏表面灌注PU值和超声造影TIC曲线的PI和AUC之间相关性,PI和PU呈正相关（r=0.83,P＜0.05）,而AUC和PU呈负相关（r=0.92,P＜0.05）.结论 超声造影是一种实时、非侵入性和简单的技术能评估在IAH状态下肾微血管灌注.PI和AUC可用于小香猪模型中的IAP微血管肾损伤的诊断性肾损害.肾脏表面激光多普勒成像能有效地评估肾脏表面灌注,反映肾皮质血流情况.

腹腔间隙综合征治疗进展

在过去的10年中,腹内高压及腹腔间隔综合征由于其在多种重症疾病中较高的发病率、极高的死亡率而日益引起重视,致力于治疗该综合征的研究也已取得了长足的进步。本文对其治疗理念及非手术、手术治疗技术的进展进行综述。

腹腔内高压与腹腔间隙综合征的诊治进展

腹腔内高压(IAH)与腹腔间隙综合征(ACS)在临床急危重患者尤其是腹部创伤患者的救治过程中较常出现,具有较高的发病率和极高的病死率,严重影响患者的预后。对危重症患者采取积极有效的措施预防IAH、救治可能出现ACS的患者,可以提高患者生存率,改善预后。该文对IAH与ACS的诊治进展作一简要综述。

早期内镜治疗重症急性胰腺炎并发腹腔内高压/腹腔间隔室综合征的效果研究

目的探讨软式内镜下腹腔灌洗透析对重症急性胰腺炎(SAP)急性反应期并发腹腔内高压(IAH)/腹腔间隔室综合征(ACS)的治疗作用。方法 32例急性反应期并发IAH/ACS的SAP患者在内科常规治疗的基础上给予软式内镜下腹腔灌洗透析治疗,动态监测腹内压(IAP)、急性生理与慢性健康评分(APACHE-Ⅱ)、腹膜刺激征评分的变化及肠鸣音恢复情况;比较治疗前后血清、腹水中肿瘤坏死因子-α(TNF-α)、白细胞介素-6(IL-6)水平及腹水淀粉酶含量的变化;统计住院时间及预后。结果该组患者治愈30例(93.75%),转科2例(6.25%),平均住院(16.53±5.30)d。治疗后1周内随治疗时间延长,患者肠鸣音逐渐恢复,IAP、APACHE-Ⅱ评分及腹膜刺激征评分明显降低(P<0.05),血清TNF-α、IL-6水平及腹水中TNF-α、IL-6、淀粉酶水平明显下降(P<0.05)。结论软式内镜下腹腔灌洗透析是治疗SAP急性反应期并发IAH/ACS的有效方法,尽早治疗疗效好,具有微创、并发症少的优点。

Effect of retension sutures on abdominal pressure after abdominal surgery

To evaluate the effect of retention sutures on abdominal pressure and postoperative prognosis in abdominal surgery patients. Methods： This prospective cohort study included patients who were admitted to Daping Hospital from May 15, 2014 to October 11, 2014. A total of 57 patients were enrolled, including 18 patients in the ＂U＂ type retention suture group, 17 patients in the intermittent retention suture group, and 22 patients in non-retention suture group. The demographic data, clinical data and risk factors for abdominal wound dehiscence were recorded. The bladder pressure （IVP） was monitored preoperatively, intraoperatively, and four days postoperatively. Additionally, the incidence of abdominal wound dehiscence and infection 14 days after the operation was recorded. Results： During the operation, the IVP decreased and then increased; it was at its lowest I h after the start of the operation （5.3 mmHg _＋ 3.2 mmHg） and peaked after tension-reducing （8.8 mmHg _＋ 4.0 mmHg）. The IVP values in the ＂U＂ type retention suture group and intermittent retention suture group were higher than in the non-retention suture group 4 days after operation （p 〈 0.005）. The Visual Analogue Scale （VAS） pain scores were 3.9 ~ 2.2, 3.8 ~ 2.0, and 3.0 _＋ 1,0 in the retention suture group, intermittent retention suture group and non-retention suture group, respectively. The VAS pain scores in the ＂U＂ type tension-reducing group and intermittent tension-reducing group were higher than in the non-tension-reducing group （p 〈 0,005）. Conclusion： Although retention sutures may reduce the incidence of postoperative wound dehiscence in abdominal surgery patients, they can increase the IVP and postoperative pain.

CBP和IBP治疗腹腔感染合并腹腔高压的疗效比较

目的:探讨持续性血液净化(CBP)和间断性血液净化(IBP)治疗腹腔感染合并腹腔高压(IAH)患者的疗效。方法:47例腹腔感染合并IAP患者随机分为CBP组(n=21)和IBP组(n=26),2组患者在常规治疗基础上均给予连续性静脉-静脉血液滤过和血液灌流,CBP组连续治疗(48±12)h,IBP组连续治疗(8±2)h、间隔24 h再次进行,共治疗3次;收集2组患者治疗前及治疗结束后APACHEⅡ评分及序贯器官衰竭评分(SOFA评分),检测血清降钙素原(PCT)、白细胞介素6(IL-6)、C反应蛋白(CRP)、动脉血乳酸(Lac)和乳酸清除率,观察IAP变化、胃肠道功能恢复时间、ICU停留时间及28 d死亡情况。结果:2组患者治疗后PCT、IL-6、CRP、Lac、IAP、SOFA评分及APACHEⅡ评分均较治疗前降低,差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05);2组患者间治疗后乳酸清除率、IAP、SOFA评分及APACHEⅡ评分比较,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论:CBP与IBP对腹部创伤和外科急腹症术后腹腔感染并IAP治疗均有效,CBP治疗对器官功能维护优于IBP治疗,但2种治疗方法对临床结局的影响无差异。

益生菌联合乳果糖对重症心脏瓣膜病术后腹腔内压的影响

目的：探讨益生菌联合乳果糖对重症心脏瓣膜病患者术后腹腔内压（IAP）及胃肠功能、预后的影响。方法2013年8月至2014年8月入选的56例患者并被随机分为两组，各28例。治疗组术后第1天开始使用益生菌联合乳果糖，持续至术后第7天；对照组未使用益生菌及乳果糖，其他治疗同治疗组。通过膀胱测压法测量两组患者术前和术后第1~5天的IAP，记录两组患者术后首次排便时间、ICU停留时间、术后住院时间；记录两组患者术后腹腔高压（IAH）、腹腔间隔综合征（ACS）、胃肠功能障碍及死亡例数。结果治疗组与对照组术前IAP差异无统计学意义[（3.96±1.63）mmHg vs（3.63±1.58） mmHg，t=0.44，P=0.63]，两组术后IAP均呈先上升后下降趋势，治疗组和对照组分别在术后第3、4天达最高点，术后第1天两组HAP水平差异无统计学意义[（11.87±2.22）mmHg vs （11.58±2.76）mmHg，t=1.62，P=0.11]，术后第2天开始差异有统计学意义（术后第2~5天的t值分别为2.24、2.47、4.23、4.92，P值分别为0.04、0.02、0.00、0.00）；两组术后首次排便时间（t=2.36，P=0.03）、ICU停留时间（t=3.87，P=0.00）及术后住院时间（t=2.76， P=0.01）之间差异均有统计学意义；治疗组与对照组术后IAH发生率（14.28%vs 39.28%，χ2=4.46， P=0.04）、胃肠功能障碍发生率（7.14%vs 28.57%，χ2=4.38，P=0.04）方面差异均有统计学意义。结论重症瓣膜病术后早期联合使用益生菌和乳果糖可有效降低IAP，改善胃肠功能，降低ICU停留时间和术后住院时间。