A Rare Cause of Late-Onset Epilepsy: Linear Scleroderma en Coup de Sabre

Late-Onset Epilepsy (LOE), with onset in adult life, is often attributed to cerebrovascular disease and intracranial tumor. Herein we present a LOE patient with history of Linear Scleroderma en Coup de Sabre (LScs) and abnormal cranial MRI signs. Curiously, his band-like skin lesion, presenting on the forehead, was in line with the surface projection of the intracranial focus shown in MRI. This gave a clue of the link between the skin lesion and the intracranial focus and the epilepsy. To sum up, it exposed a rare cause of LOE. Moreover, it underlined the significance of recognizing the cause to be associated with a substantially increased risk of developing epilepsy.

Sorl1 knockout inhibits expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor:involvement in the development of late-onset Alzheimer's disease

Sortilin-related receptor 1(SORL1)is a critical gene associated with late-onset Alzheimer’s disease.SORL1 contributes to the development and progression of this neurodegenerative condition by affecting the transport and metabolism of intracellularβ-amyloid precursor protein.To better understand the underlying mechanisms of SORL1 in the pathogenesis of late-onset Alzheimer s disease,in this study,we established a mouse model of SorI1 gene knockout using cluste red regularly inters paced short palindro mic repeats-associated protein 9 technology.We found that Sorl1-knocko ut mice displayed deficits in learning and memory.Furthermore,the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor was significantly downregulated in the hippocampus and co rtex,and amyloidβ-protein deposits were observed in the brains of 5orl1-knockout mice.In vitro,hippocampal neuronal cell synapses from homozygous Sorl1-knockout mice were impaired.The expression of synaptic proteins,including Drebrin and NR2B,was significantly reduced,and also their colocalization.Additionally,by knocking out the Sorl1 gene in N2a cells,we found that expression of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor,NR2B,and cyclic adenosine monophosphate-response element binding protein was also inhibited.These findings suggest that SORL1 participates in the pathogenesis of late-onset Alzheimer s disease by regulating the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor NR2B/cyclic adenosine monophosphate-response element binding protein signaling axis.

Treadmill exercise improves hippocampal neural plasticity and relieves cognitive deficits in a mouse model of epilepsy

Epilepsy frequently leads to cognitive dysfunction and approaches to treatment remain limited.Although regular exercise effectively improves learning and memory functions across multiple neurological diseases,its application in patients with epilepsy remains controversial.Here,we adopted a 14-day treadmill-exercise paradigm in a pilocarpine injection-induced mouse model of epilepsy.Cognitive assays confirmed the improvement of object and spatial memory after endurance training,and electrophysiological studies revealed the maintenance of hippocampal plasticity as a result of physical exercise.Investigations of the mechanisms underlying this effect revealed that exercise protected parvalbumin interneurons,probably via the suppression of neuroinflammation and improved integrity of blood-brain barrier.In summary,this work identified a previously unknown mechanism through which exercise improves cognitive rehabilitation in epilepsy.

Pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of epilepsy: electromagnetic stimulation-mediated neuromodulation therapy and new technologies

Epilepsy is a severe,relapsing,and multifactorial neurological disorder.Studies regarding the accurate diagnosis,prognosis,and in-depth pathogenesis are crucial for the precise and effective treatment of epilepsy.The pathogenesis of epilepsy is complex and involves alterations in variables such as gene expression,protein expression,ion channel activity,energy metabolites,and gut microbiota composition.Satisfactory results are lacking for conventional treatments for epilepsy.Surgical resection of lesions,drug therapy,and non-drug interventions are mainly used in clinical practice to treat pain associated with epilepsy.Non-pharmacological treatments,such as a ketogenic diet,gene therapy for nerve regeneration,and neural regulation,are currently areas of research focus.This review provides a comprehensive overview of the pathogenesis,diagnostic methods,and treatments of epilepsy.It also elaborates on the theoretical basis,treatment modes,and effects of invasive nerve stimulation in neurotherapy,including percutaneous vagus nerve stimulation,deep brain electrical stimulation,repetitive nerve electrical stimulation,in addition to non-invasive transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation.Numerous studies have shown that electromagnetic stimulation-mediated neuromodulation therapy can markedly improve neurological function and reduce the frequency of epileptic seizures.Additionally,many new technologies for the diagnosis and treatment of epilepsy are being explored.However,current research is mainly focused on analyzing patients’clinical manifestations and exploring relevant diagnostic and treatment methods to study the pathogenesis at a molecular level,which has led to a lack of consensus regarding the mechanisms related to the disease.

Aberrant adult neurogenesis in intractable epilepsy:can GABAergic progenitor transplantation normalize this process?

Temporal lobe epilepsy(TLE) is a common type of focal epilepsy characterized by seizure foci within the temporal lobes.While surgical resection of the foci is an established and effective approach for controlling seizures,both temporal lobes cannot be removed,due to their prominent roles in learning and memory.Additionally,seizures induce changes to the temporal lobes that contribute to hyperexcitability,including mossy fiber sprouting,astrogliosis.

Astrocyte chloride,excitatory-inhibitory balance and epilepsy

Excitation and inhibition are at the core of brain function and malfunction.To sustain the activity of neuronal networks over time and space,glutamatergic excitation is balanced by GABAergic inhibition.The equipoise of excitation and inhibition,known as the excitation/inhibition(E/I)balance,is crucial for proper brain function.The E/I balance is highly dynamic and shifts across different brain states:wakefulness primarily augments excitatory activity,while sleep promotes a decrease in excitation and an increase in inhibition(Bridi et al.,2020).Neuronal activity during various brain states is primarily regulated by neurotransmitters(Schiemann et al.,2015),alongside non-synaptic mechanisms that operate on a slower timescale.The non-synaptic mechanisms are many,with the ionic composition of the extracellular space playing a significant role;altering extracellular ion concentrations affects sleep,arousal,electroencephalogram patterns,and behavioral states(Ding et al.,2016).

The role of axon guidance molecules in the pathogenesis of epilepsy

Current treatments for epilepsy can only manage the symptoms of the condition but cannot alter the initial onset or halt the progression of the disease. Consequently, it is crucial to identify drugs that can target novel cellular and molecular mechanisms and mechanisms of action. Increasing evidence suggests that axon guidance molecules play a role in the structural and functional modifications of neural networks and that the dysregulation of these molecules is associated with epilepsy susceptibility. In this review, we discuss the essential role of axon guidance molecules in neuronal activity in patients with epilepsy as well as the impact of these molecules on synaptic plasticity and brain tissue remodeling. Furthermore, we examine the relationship between axon guidance molecules and neuroinflammation, as well as the structural changes in specific brain regions that contribute to the development of epilepsy. Ample evidence indicates that axon guidance molecules, including semaphorins and ephrins, play a fundamental role in guiding axon growth and the establishment of synaptic connections. Deviations in their expression or function can disrupt neuronal connections, ultimately leading to epileptic seizures. The remodeling of neural networks is a significant characteristic of epilepsy, with axon guidance molecules playing a role in the dynamic reorganization of neural circuits. This, in turn, affects synapse formation and elimination. Dysregulation of these molecules can upset the delicate balance between excitation and inhibition within a neural network, thereby increasing the risk of overexcitation and the development of epilepsy. Inflammatory signals can regulate the expression and function of axon guidance molecules, thus influencing axonal growth, axon orientation, and synaptic plasticity. The dysregulation of neuroinflammation can intensify neuronal dysfunction and contribute to the occurrence of epilepsy. This review delves into the mechanisms associated with the pathogenicity of axon guidance molecules in epilepsy, offering a valuable reference for the exploration of therapeutic targets and presenting a fresh perspective on treatment strategies for this condition.

Psychiatric comorbidities in epilepsy:population co-occurrence,genetic correlations and causal effects

Background Psychiatric comorbidities are common in patients with epilepsy.Reasons for the co-occurrence of psychiatric conditions and epilepsy remain poorly understood.Aim We aimed to triangulate the relationship between epilepsy and psychiatric conditions to determine the extent and possible origins of these conditions.Methods Using nationwide Swedish health registries,we quantified the lifetime prevalence of psychiatric disorders in patients with epilepsy.We then used summarydata from genome-wide association studies to investigate whether the identified observational associations could be attributed to a shared underlying genetic aetiology using cross-trait linkage disequilibrium score regression.Finally,we assessed the potential bidirectional relationships using two-sample Mendelian randomisation.Results In a cohort of 7628495 individuals,we found that almost half of the 94435 individuals diagnosed with epilepsy were also diagnosed with a psychiatric condition in their lifetime(adjusted lifetime prevalence,44.09%;95%confidence interval(Cl)43.78%to 44.39%).We found evidence for a genetic correlation between epilepsy and some neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions.For example,we observed a genetic correlation between epilepsy and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder(r,=0.18,95%Cl 0.09 to 0.27,p<0.001)—a correlation that was more pronounced in focal epilepsy(r=0.23,95%CI 0.09 to 0.36,p<0.001).Findings from Mendelian randomisation using common genetic variants did not support bidirectional effects between epilepsy and neurodevelopmental or psychiatric conditions.Conclusions Psychiatric comorbidities are common in patients with epilepsy.Genetic correlations may partially explain some comorbidities;however,there is little evidence of a bidirectional relationship between the genetic liability of epilepsy and psychiatric conditions.These findings highlight the need to understand the role of environmental factors or rare genetic variations in the origins of psychiatric comorbidities in epilepsy.

Nrf2 as a potential target for the treatment of epilepsy

Epilepsy is a prevalent chronic brain disorder that is characterized by a persistent predisposition to recurrently generate epileptic seizures and is often associated with cognitive and psychological consequences.Epilepsy affects approximately 65 million individuals,including both males and females of all ages worldwide,and poses a significant burden on patients,their families,and the health system(Vezzani et al.,2019).

Electroencephalogram findings in 10 patients with post-stroke epilepsy:A retrospective study

BACKGROUND Post-stroke epilepsy is a common and easily overlooked complication of acute cerebrovascular disease.Long-term seizures can seriously affect the prognosis and quality of life of patients.Electroencephalogram(EEG)is the simplest way to diagnose epilepsy,and plays an important role in predicting seizures and guiding medication.AIM To explore the EEG characteristics of patients with post-stroke epilepsy and improve the detection rate of inter-seizure epileptiform discharges.METHODS From January 2017 to June 2020,10 patients with post-stroke epilepsy in our hospital were included.The clinical,imaging,and EEG characteristics were collected.The stroke location,seizure type,and ictal and interictal EEG manifestations of the patients with post-stroke epilepsy were then retrospectively analyzed.RESULTS In all 10 patients,epileptiform waves occurred in the side opposite to the stroke lesion during the interictal stage;these manifested as sharp wave,sharp-wave complex,or spike discharges in the anterior head lead of the side opposite to the lesion.CONCLUSION In EEG,epileptiform waves can occur in the side opposite to the stroke lesion in patients with post-stroke epilepsy.

Cognitive Disorders, Depression and Anxiety in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy: An Overview

Partial epilepsies, originating in a specific brain region, affect about 60% of adults with epilepsy. Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most prevalent subtype within this category, often necessitating surgical intervention due to its refractoriness to antiepileptic drugs (AEDs). Hippocampal sclerosis, a common underlying pathology, often exacerbates the severity by introducing cognitive and emotional challenges. This review delves deeper into the cognitive profile of TLE, along with the risk factors for cognitive disorders, depression, and anxiety in this population.

Bibliometric analysis of research in epilepsy and comorbid depression from 2014 to 2023

BACKGROUND Epilepsy and depression have complicated bidirectional relationships.Our study aimed to explore the field of epilepsy comorbid with depression in a bibliometric perspective from 2014-2023.AIM To improve our understanding of epilepsy and depression by evaluating the relationship between epilepsy and depression,bibliometric analyses were performed.METHODS Epilepsy and depression-related publications from the last decade were retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection.We conducted bibliometric and visual analysis using VOSviewer and CiteSpace,examining authorships,countries,institutions,journals of publication,co-citations of references,connections between keywords,clusters of keywords,and keywords with citation bursts.RESULTS Over the past ten years,we collected 1045 research papers focusing on the field of epilepsy and comorbid depression.Publications on epilepsy and depression have shown a general upward trend over time,though with some fluctuations.The United States,with 287 articles,and the University of Melbourne,contributing 34 articles,were the top countries and institutions,respectively.In addition,in the field of epilepsy and depression,Professor Lee,who has published 30 articles,was the most contributing author.The hot topics pay attention to the quality of life in patients with epilepsy and depression.CONCLUSION We reported that quality of life and stigma in patients with epilepsy comorbid with depression are possible future hot topics and directions in the field of epilepsy and depression research.

Regulation of specific abnormal calcium signals in the hippocampal CA1 and primary cortex M1 alleviates the progression of temporal lobe epilepsy

Temporal lobe epilepsy is a multifactorial neurological dysfunction syndrome that is refractory,resistant to antiepileptic drugs,and has a high recurrence rate.The pathogenesis of temporal lobe epilepsy is complex and is not fully understood.Intracellular calcium dynamics have been implicated in temporal lobe epilepsy.However,the effect of fluctuating calcium activity in CA1 pyramidal neurons on temporal lobe epilepsy is unknown,and no longitudinal studies have investigated calcium activity in pyramidal neurons in the hippocampal CA1 and primary motor cortex M1 of freely moving mice.In this study,we used a multichannel fiber photometry system to continuously record calcium signals in CA1 and M1 during the temporal lobe epilepsy process.We found that calcium signals varied according to the grade of temporal lobe epilepsy episodes.In particular,cortical spreading depression,which has recently been frequently used to represent the continuously and substantially increased calcium signals,was found to correspond to complex and severe behavioral characteristics of temporal lobe epilepsy ranging from gradeⅡto gradeⅤ.However,vigorous calcium oscillations and highly synchronized calcium signals in CA1 and M1 were strongly related to convulsive motor seizures.Chemogenetic inhibition of pyramidal neurons in CA1 significantly attenuated the amplitudes of the calcium signals corresponding to gradeⅠepisodes.In addition,the latency of cortical spreading depression was prolonged,and the above-mentioned abnormal calcium signals in CA1 and M1 were also significantly reduced.Intriguingly,it was possible to rescue the altered intracellular calcium dynamics.Via simultaneous analysis of calcium signals and epileptic behaviors,we found that the progression of temporal lobe epilepsy was alleviated when specific calcium signals were reduced,and that the end-point behaviors of temporal lobe epilepsy were improved.Our results indicate that the calcium dynamic between CA1 and M1 may reflect specific epileptic behaviors corresponding to different grades.Furthermore,the selective regulation of abnormal calcium signals in CA1 pyramidal neurons appears to effectively alleviate temporal lobe epilepsy,thereby providing a potential molecular mechanism for a new temporal lobe epilepsy diagnosis and treatment strategy.

Exploring the role of interleukin-6 receptor blockade in epilepsy and associated neuropsychiatric conditions through a mendelian randomization study

BACKGROUND The interplay between inflammation,immune dysregulation,and the onset of neurological disorders,including epilepsy,has become increasingly recognized.Interleukin(IL)-6,a pro-inflammatory cytokine,is suspected to not only mediate traditional inflammatory pathways but also contribute to neuroinflammatory responses that could underpin neuropsychiatric symptoms and broader psychiatric disorders in epilepsy patients.The role of IL-6 receptor(IL6R)blockade presents an intriguing target for therapeutic intervention due to its potential to attenuate these processes.neuropsychiatric conditions due to neuroinflammation.METHODS Mendelian randomization(MR)analysis employing single nucleotide poly-morphisms(SNPs)in the vicinity of the IL6R gene(total individuals=408225)was used to evaluate the putative causal relationship between IL6R blockade and epilepsy(total cases/controls=12891/312803),focal epilepsy(cases/controls=7526/399290),and generalized epilepsy(cases/controls=1413/399287).SNP weights were determined by their effect on C-reactive protein(CRP)levels and integrated using inverse variance-weighted meta-analysis as surrogates for IL6R effects.To address potential outlier and pleiotropic influences,sensitivity analyses were conducted employing a variety of MR methods under different modeling assumptions.RESULTS The genetic simulation targeting IL6R blockade revealed a modest but significant reduction in overall epilepsy risk[inverse variance weighting:Odds ratio(OR):0.827;95%confidence interval(CI):0.685-1.000;P=0.05].Subtype analysis showed variability,with no significant effect observed in generalized,focal,or specific childhood and juvenile epilepsy forms.Beyond the primary inflammatory marker CRP,the findings also suggested potential non-inflammatory pathways mediated by IL-6 signaling contributing to the neurobiological landscape of epilepsy,hinting at possible links to neuroinflammation,psychiatric symptoms,and associated mental disorders.CONCLUSION The investigation underscored a tentative causal relationship between IL6R blockade and decreased epilepsy incidence,likely mediated via complex neuroinflammatory pathways.These results encouraged further in-depth studies involving larger cohorts and multifaceted psychiatric assessments to corroborate these findings and more thoroughly delineate the neuro-psychiatric implications of IL-6 signaling in epilepsy.The exploration of IL6R blockade could herald a novel therapeutic avenue not just for seizure management but also for addressing the broader psychiatric and cognitive disturbances often associated with epilepsy.

Clinical efficacy of Baijin pills in the treatment of generalized tonicclonic seizure epilepsy with cognitive impairment

BACKGROUND The generalized tonic-clonic seizure(GTCS)is the most usual variety of epileptic seizure.It is mainly characterized by strong body muscle rigidity,loss of consciousness,a disorder of plant neurofunction,and significant damage to cognitive function.The effect of antiepileptic drugs on cognition should also be considered.At present,there is no effective treatment for patients with epilepsy,but traditional Chinese medicine has shown a significant effect on chronic disease with fewer harmful side effects and should,therefore,be considered for the therapy means of epilepsy with cognitive dysfunction.AIM To investigate the clinical efficacy of Baijin pills for treating GTCS patients with cognitive impairment.METHODS This prospective study enrolled patients diagnosed with GTCS between January 2020 and December 2023 and separate them into two groups(experimental and control)using random number table method.The control group was treated with sodium valproate,and the experimental group was Baijin pills and sodium valproate for three months.The frequency and duration of each seizure,the Montreal Cognitive Assessment Scale(MoCA),and the Quality of Life Rating Scale(QOLIE-31)were recorded before and after treatment.RESULTS There were 85 patients included(42 in the control group and 43 in the experimental group).After treatment,the seizure frequency in the experimental group was significantly reduced(P<0.05),and seizure duration was shortened(P<0.01).The total MoCA score in the experimental group significantly increased compared to before treatment(P<0.01),and the sub-item scores,except naming and abstract generalization ability,significantly increased(P<0.05),whereas the total MoCA score in the control group significantly decreased after treatment(P<0.05).The QOLIE-31 score of the experimental group increased significantly after treatment compared to before treatment(P<0.01).CONCLUSION Baijin pills have a good clinical effect on epilepsy with cognitive dysfunction.

Effects of intensive psychological intervention on treatment compliance,psychological status,and quality of life of patients with epilepsy

BACKGROUND Epilepsy is a nervous system disease characterized by recurrent attacks,a long disease course,and an unfavorable prognosis.It is associated with an enduring therapeutic process,and finding a cure has been difficult.Patients with epilepsy are predisposed to adverse moods,such as resistance,anxiety,nervousness,and anxiety,which compromise treatment compliance and overall efficacy.AIM To explored the influence of intensive psychological intervention on treatment compliance,psychological status,and quality of life(QOL)of patients with epilepsy.METHODS The clinical data of 105 patients with epilepsy admitted between December 2019 and July 2023 were retrospectively analyzed,including those of 50 patients who underwent routine intervention(control group)and 55 who underwent intensive psychological intervention(research group).Treatment compliance,psychological status based on the Self-Rating Anxiety Scale(SAS)and Depression Scale Self-Rating Depression Scale(SDS)scores,hope level assessed using the Herth Hope Scale(HHS),psychological resilience evaluated using the Psychological Resilience Scale,and QOL determined using the QOL in Epilepsy-31 Inventory(QOLIE-31)were comparatively analyzed.RESULTS Treatment compliance in the research group was 85.5%,which is significantly better than the 68.0%of the control group.No notable intergroup differences in preinterventional SAS and SDS scores were identified(P>0.05);however,after the intervention,the SAS and SDS scores decreased significantly in the two groups,especially in the research group(P<0.05).The two groups also exhibited no significant differences in preinterventional HHS,Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale(CD-RISC),and QOLIE-31 scores(P>0.05).After 6 months of intervention,the research group showed evidently higher HHS,CD-RISC,tenacity,optimism,strength,and QOLIE-31 scores(P<0.05).CONCLUSION Intensive psychological intervention enhances treatment compliance,psychological status,and QOL of patients with epilepsy.

Salivary C-reactive protein and mean platelet volume as possible diagnostic markers for late-onset neonatal pneumonia

BACKGROUND Neonatal sepsis,a formidable threat to newborns,is a leading cause of neonatal mortality,with late-onset sepsis manifesting after 72 hours post-birth being particularly concerning.Pneumonia,a prevalent sepsis presentation,poses a significant risk,especially during the neonatal phase when lung defenses are compromised.Accurate diagnosis of pneumonia is imperative for timely and effective interventions.Saliva,a minimally invasive diagnostic medium,holds great promise for evaluating infections,especially in infants.AIM To investigate the potential of serum C-reactive protein(CRP),salivary CRP(sCRP),and mean platelet volume(MPV)as diagnostic markers for late-onset neonatal pneumonia(LONP).METHODS Eighty full-term neonates were systematically examined,considering anthropometric measurements,clinical manifestations,radiology findings,and essential biomarkers,including serum CRP,sCRP,and MPV.RESULTS The study reveals noteworthy distinctions in serum CRP levels,MPV,and the serum CRP/MPV ratio between neonates with LONP and healthy controls.MPV exhibited a robust discriminatory ability[area under the curve(AUC)=0.87]with high sensitivity and specificity at a cutoff value of>8.8.Correlations between serum CRP,sCRP,and MPV were also identified.Notably,sCRP demonstrated excellent predictive value for serum CRP levels(AUC=0.89),underscoring its potential as a diagnostic tool.CONCLUSION This study underscores the diagnostic promise of salivary and serum biomarkers,specifically MPV and CRP,in identifying and predicting LONP among neonates.These findings advocate for further research to validate their clinical utility in larger neonatal cohorts.

A Case of Fahr’s Disease with Epilepsy as the First Symptom in Infancy

Background: Fahr’s disease, also recognized as Idiopathic Basal Ganglia Calcification (IBGC) or Primary Familial Brain Calcification (PFBC), was first identified by the German neurologist Karl Theodor Fahr in 1930. This rare condition, which involves the calcification of the basal ganglia and presents significant treatment challenges, is most commonly diagnosed in middle-aged adults and is notably uncommon in children. Purpose: We report a case of a younger patient and review this disease as an aid to early detection and diagnosis of the disease. Case Introduction: In this report, we present a unique case of Fahr’s disease in a child, where epilepsy manifested as the initial symptom during infancy. In this report, we present a case of Fahr’s disease in a child who presented with epilepsy as the first symptom in infancy. The child had no imaging abnormalities at the onset of the seizure, and subsequent antiepileptic drugs were reduced and discontinued, and when the seizure recurred 3 years later, a perfect cranial CT revealed symmetrical calcifications in the brain, which gradually worsened, and subsequently the child was unable to take care of himself and had regression of his psychomotor development, and the family requested discharge from the hospital, and then the child died during the follow-up visit. Conclusion: The disease is currently associated with a number of disorders for which there is no specific treatment, and half of all patients currently have a well-defined gene, emphasizing more importantly the importance of genetic counseling for parents known to be at risk prior to conception.

Did pediatric drug development advance epilepsy treatment in young patients?It is time for new research goals

Modern drugs have changed epilepsy,which affects people of all ages.However,for young people with epilepsy,the framework of drug development has stalled.In the wake of the thalidomide catastrophe,the misconception emerged that for people<18 years of age drugs,including antiseizure medications(ASMs),need separate proof of efficacy and safety,overall called"pediatric drug development".For ASMs,this has changed to some degree.Authorities now accept that ASMs are effective in<18 years as well,but they still require"extrapolation of efficacy,"as if minors were another species.As a result,some of the pediatric clinical epilepsy research over the past decades was unnecessary.Even more importantly,this has hampered research on meaningful research goals.We do not need to confirm that ASMs work before as they do after the 18th birthday.Instead,we need to learn how to prevent brain damage in young patients by preventing seizures and optimize ASMs’uses.Herein we discuss how to proceed in this endeavor.

MicroRNAs as potential biomarkers in temporal lobe epilepsy and mesial temporal lobe epilepsy

Temporal lobe epilepsy is the most common form of focal epilepsy in adults,accounting for one third of all diagnosed epileptic patients,with seizures originating from or involving mesial temporal structures such as the hippocampus,and many of these patients being refractory to treatment with anti-epileptic drugs.Temporal lobe epilepsy is the most common childhood neurological disorder and,compared with adults,the symptoms are greatly affected by age and brain development.Diagnosis of temporal lobe epilepsy relies on clinical examination,patient history,electroencephalographic recordings,and brain imaging.Misdiagnosis or delay in diagnosis is common.A molecular biomarker that could distinguish epilepsy from healthy subjects and other neurological conditions would allow for an earlier and more accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment to be initiated.Among possible biomarkers of pathological changes as well as potential therapeutic targets in the epileptic brain are micro RNAs.Most of the recent studies had performed micro RNA profiling in body fluids such as blood plasma and blood serum and brain tissues such as temporal cortex tissue and hippocampal tissue.A large number of micro RNAs were dysregulated when compared to healthy controls and with some overlap between individual studies that could serve as potential biomarkers.For example,in adults with temporal lobe epilepsy,possible biomarkers are miR-199a-3p in blood plasma and miR-142-5p in blood plasma and blood serum.In adults with mesial temporal lobe epilepsy,possible biomarkers are miR-153 in blood plasma and miR-145-3p in blood serum.However,in many of the studies involving patients who receive one or several anti-epileptic drugs,the influence of these on micro RNA expression in body fluids and brain tissues is largely unknown.Further studies are warranted with children with temporal lobe epilepsy and consideration should be given to utilizing mouse or rat and non-human primate models of temporal lobe epilepsy.The animal models could be used to confirm micro RNA findings in human patients and to test the effects of targeting specific micro RNAs on disease progression and behavior.