Ultimate Lateral Capacity of Rigid Pile in c–φ Soil

To date no analytical solution of the pile ultimate lateral capacity for the general c–φ soil has been obtained. In the present study, a new dimensionless embedded ratio was proposed and the analytical solutions of ultimate lateral capacity and rotation center of rigid pile in c–φ soils were obtained. The results showed that both the dimensionless ultimate lateral capacity and dimensionless rotation center were the univariate functions of the embedded ratio. Also,the ultimate lateral capacity in the c–φ soil was the combination of the ultimate lateral capacity（f;） in the clay, and the ultimate lateral capacity（f;） in the sand. Therefore, the Broms chart for clay, solution for clay（φ=0） put forward by Poulos and Davis, solution for sand（c=0） obtained by Petrasovits and Awad, and Kondner’s ultimate bending moment were all proven to be the special cases of the general solution in the present study. A comparison of the field and laboratory tests in 93 cases showed that the average ratios of the theoretical values to the experimental value ranged from 0.85 to 1.15. Also, the theoretical values displayed a good agreement with the test values.

Influence of Vertical Load on Lateral-Loaded Monopiles by Numerical Simulation

Monopiles are the most common foundation form of offshore wind turbines,which bear the vertical load,lateral load and bending moment.It remains uncertain whether the applied vertical load increases the lateral deflection of the pile.This paper investigated the influence of vertical load on the behaviour of monopiles installed in the sand under combined load using three-dimensional numerical methods.The commercial software PLAXIS was used for simulations in this paper.Monopiles were modelled as a structure incorporating linear elastic material behaviour and soil was modelled using the Hardening-Soil(HS)constitutive model.The monopiles under vertical load,lateral load and combined vertical and lateral loads were respectively studied taking into account the sequence of load application and pile slenderness ratio(L/D;L and D are the length and diameter of the pile).Results suggest that the sequence of load application plays a major role in how vertical load affects the deflection behaviour of the pile.Specifically,when L/D ratios obtained by lengthening the pile while keeping its diameter constant are 3,5 and 8,the relationships between lateral load and the deflection behaviour of the pile under the effect of vertical load demonstrate a similar trend.Furthermore,the cause of increased lateral capacity of the pile under the action of applied vertical load in the common practical application case and in the VPL case was analyzed by studying the variation law of soil stress along the pile embedment.Results confirm that the confining effect of vertical load increases means effective stress of the soil around the pile,thus increasing soil stiffness and pile capacity.

Lateral Bearing Capacity of Modified Suction Caissons Determined by Using the Limit Equilibrium Method

The modified suction caisson(MSC) adds a short-skirted structure around the regular suction caissons to increase the lateral bearing capacity and limit the deflection. The MSC is suitable for acting as the offshore wind turbine foundation subjected to larger lateral loads compared with the imposed vertical loads. Determination of the lateral bearing capacity is a key issue for the MSC design. The formula estimating the lateral bearing capacity of the MSC was proposed in terms of the limit equilibrium method and was verified by the test results. Parametric studies on the lateral bearing capacity were also carried out. It was found that the lateral bearing capacity of the MSC increases with the increasing length and radius of the external skirt, and the lateral bearing capacity increases linearly with the increasing coefficient of subgrade reaction. The maximum lateral bearing capacity of the MSC is attained when the ratio of the radii of the internal compartment to the external skirt equals 0.82 and the ratio of the lengths of the external skirt to the internal compartment equals 0.48, provided that the steel usage of the MSC is kept constant.

Lateral Bearing Capacity of Multi-Bucket Foundation in Soft Ground

The bucket foundation is a new type of foundation for offshore application to intermediate-depth waters. It has advantages over conventional ones. However, there is no consensus in the analysis and design of this type of foundation. In this paper, the lateral bearing capacity and the failure mechanism of multi-bucket foundations are studied with different connection stiffness and bucket spacing by use of a three-dimensional finite element method. Based on the numerical analysis results, a limit analysis method of plasticity for evaluating the lateral bearing capacity of large-spacing multi- bucket foundation with rigid connection in soft ground is proposed. This method provides a simple procedure that gives results comparable to those from the finite element analyses.

Lateral load-carrying capacity analyses of composite shear walls with double steel plates and filled concrete with binding bars

A method is developed to predict the lateral load-carrying capacity of composite shear walls with double steel plates and filled concrete with binding bars(SCBs). Nonlinear finite element models of SCBs were established by using the finite element tool, Abaqus. Tie constraints were used to connect the binding bars and the steel plates. Surface-to-surface contact provided by the Abaqus was used to simulate the interaction between the steel plate and the core concrete. The established models could predict the lateral load-carrying capacity of SCBs with a reasonable degree of accuracy. A calculation method was developed by superposition principle to predict the lateral load-carrying capacity of SCBs for the engineering application. The concrete confined by steel plates and binding bars is under multi-axial compression; therefore, its shear strength was calculated by using the Guo-Wang concrete failure criterion. The shear strength of the steel plates of SCBs was calculated by using the von Mises yielding criterion without considering buckling. Results of the developed method are in good agreement with the testing and finite element results.

The Effect of Jet Grouting on Enhancing the Lateral Behavior of Piled Raft Foundation in Soft Clay(Numerical Investigation)

Soft clay soils cannot usually support large lateral loads,so clay soils must be improved to increase lateral resistance.The jet grouting method is one of the methods used to improve weak soils.In this paper,a series of 3D finite element studies were conducted using Plaxis 3D software to investigate the lateral behavior of piled rafts in improved soft clay utilizing the jet grouting method.Parametric models were analyzed to explore the influence of the width,depth,and location of the grouted clay on the lateral resistance.Additionally,the effect of vertical loads on the lateral behavior of piled rafts in grouted clay was also investigated.The numerical results indicate that the lateral resistance increases by increasing the dimensions of the jet grouting beneath and around the piled raft.Typical increases in lateral resistance are 11.2%,65%,177%,and 35%for applying jet grouting beside the raft,below the raft,below and around the raft,and grouted strips parallel to lateral loads,respectively.It was also found that increasing the depth of grouted clay enhances lateral resistance up to a certain depth,about 6 to 10 times the pile diameter(6 to 10D).In contrast,the improvement ratio is limited beyond 10D.Furthermore,the results demonstrate that the presence of vertical loads has a significant impact on sideward resistance.

Field testing of stiffened deep cement mixing piles under lateral cyclic loading

Construction of seaside and underground wall bracing often uses stiffened deep cement mixed columns （SDCM）. This research investigates methods used to improve the level of bearing capacity of these SDCM when subjected to cyclic lateral loading via various types of stiffer cores. Eight piles, two deep cement mixed piles and six stiffened deep cement mixing piles with three different types of cores, H shape cross section prestressed concrete, steel pipe, and H-beam steel, were embedded though soft clay into medium-hard clay on site in Thailand. Cyclic horizontal loading was gradually applied until pile failure and the hysteresis loops of lateral load vs. lateral deformation were recorded. The lateral carrying capacities of the SDCM piles with an H-beam steel core increased by 3-4 times that of the DCM piles. This field research clearly shows that using H-beam steel as a stiffer core for SDCM piles is the best method to improve its lateral carrying capacity, ductility and energy dissipation capacity.

Finite Element Analysis of Laterally Loaded Suction Caisson in Anisotropic Clay

Naturally deposited clay is usually characterized by strength anisotropy; however, the effect of anisotropy on the capacity of a suction caisson was seldom investigated. The conventional Hill yield surface includes undrained strengths in triaxial shear, simple shear and pressuremeter shear simultaneously but it can not specify differences in respect to the mode of loading for a given shearing mode. A new technique of updating strength is integrated into incremental finite element （FE） calculation to consider the mode of loading, which is applied to the study of variation of capacity with the aspect ratio of suction caissons in anisotropic clay. Compared with the upper bound limit analysis, FE simulation is capable of offering the lateral capacity of short caissons. In the normal range of anisotropic strength properties, the Mises yield surface with simple shear strength predicts the horizontal capacity of which the error is less than 10% for rough caissons and 15% for smooth caissons. It is also found that the friction of caisson affects the capacity significantly.

H-M Bearing Capacity of A Modified Suction Caisson Determined by Using Load-/Displacement-Controlled Methods

This paper presents a series of monotonically combined lateral loading tests to investigate the bearing capacity of the MSCs （modified suction caissons） in the saturated marine fine sand. The lateral loads were applied under load- and displacement-controlled methods at the loading eccentricity ratios of 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5. Results show that, in the displacement-controlled test, the deflection-softening behavior of load-deflection curves for MSCs was observed, and the softening degree of the load-deflection response increased with the increasing external skirt length or the decreasing loading eccentricity. It was also found that the rotation center of the MSC at failure determined by the load-controlled method is slightly lower than that by the displacement-controlled method. The calculated MSC capacity based on the rotation center position in serviceability limit state is relatively conservative, compared with the calculated capacity based on the rotation center position in the ultimate limit state. In the limit state, the passive earth pressures opposite the loading direction under load- and displacement-controlled methods decrease by 46% and 74% corresponding to peak values, respectively; however, the passive earth pressures in the loading direction at failure only decrease by approximately 3% and 7%, compared with their peak values.

Stability Analysis of Piles Subjected to Lateral Load in Static and Seismic Conditions

It is disclosed a method for the stability analysis of foundation piles and piers subjected to lateral loading, both static and seismic conditions. The stability analysis for stratified soil is based upon the models of foundation soil-structure interaction and the Rankine＇s theory of earth passive pressure. In addition, its application is simpler and it can be solved using a spreadsheet. The procedure described in this work can be used in homogeneous soils as in stratified soils, considers the horizontal drag forces exerted by the soil mass against the foundation during an earthquake, can be used easily in the four pile and piers boundary cases, and considers the pore pressure generated in a fine saturated soil during an earthquake or during a rapid application of the horizontal load. The solution of two examples are shown, one in static condition and one in seismic condition, detailing the procedure step by step.

Investigation on the Folding Mode and Deployment Process of an Inflatable Boarding Platform for the Marine Emergency Evacuation System

Monopiles are the most common foundation form of offshore wind turbines,which bear the vertical load,lateral load and bending moment.It remains uncertain whether the applied vertical load increases the lateral deflection of the pile.This paper investigated the influence of vertical load on the behaviour of monopiles installed in the sand under combined load using three-dimensional numerical methods.The commercial software PLAXIS was used for simulations in this paper.Monopiles were modelled as a structure incorporating linear elastic material behaviour and soil was modelled using the Hardening-Soil(HS)constitutive model.The monopiles under vertical load,lateral load and combined vertical and lateral loads were respectively studied taking into account the sequence of load application and pile slenderness ratio(L/D;L and D are the length and diameter of the pile).Results suggest that the sequence of load application plays a major role in how vertical load affects the deflection behaviour of the pile.Specifically,when L/D ratios obtained by lengthening the pile while keeping its diameter constant are 3,5 and 8,the relationships between lateral load and the deflection behaviour of the pile under the effect of vertical load demonstrate a similar trend.Furthermore,the cause of increased lateral capacity of the pile under the action of applied vertical load in the common practical application case and in the VPL case was analyzed by studying the variation law of soil stress along the pile embedment.Results confirm that the confining effect of vertical load increases means effective stress of the soil around the pile,thus increasing soil stiffness and pile capacity.

海上风电螺旋桩侧向承载能力分析

The rapid development of offshore wind power and the need to move to deeper sea areas while reducing costs per kilowatt necessitate the employment of a new jacket and helical pile combination.This new combination combines the advantages of both jacket structures and helical piles and provides a superior bearing capacity and installation efficiency compared to conventional pile foundations.Foundations account for 25%-34%of the overall cost of construction,but the use of this new foundation would be highly significant for the further development of offshore wind power.This study presents numerical results for the horizontal bearing capacity when horizontal displacement is applied,focusing on the bearing capacity and characteristics of the helical pile jacket foundation as well as the differences between the bearing mechanisms and failure modes of normal pile and helical pile types.ABAQUS model parameters are obtained through trial calculations based on actual engineering data,and the finite element model(FEM)is validated using data from a model experiment.Subsequently,different FEMs are established,and numerical results are compared and presented.Through a comparison between a normal pile jacket foundation and a helical pile jacket foundation with different helical blade numbers,the differences in the bearing mechanisms and failure modes are revealed.The failure of the normal pile jacket foundation is instantaneous and sudden,whereas that of the helical pile foundation is incremental and accumulative.These data highlight the most significant contributions and vulnerabilities of the one-pile side of the foundation and suggest that the addition of blades on the one-pile side is the most effective way of improving the foundation’s bearing performance.In addition,the interaction between the compression side and tension side is analyzed in relation to differing the relative magnitudes of their bearing capacities.

Model testing of tripod caisson foundations in silty clay subjected to eccentric lateral loads

In this study,model tests were conducted to investigate the bearing capacities of tripod caisson foundations subjected to eccentric lateral loads in silty clay.Lateral load–rotation curves of five eccentric-shaped tripod suction foundations were plotted to analyze the bearing capacities at different loading angles.It was observed that the loading angle significantly influenced the bearing capacity of the foundations,particularly for eccentric tripod caisson foundations.Compared with eccentric tripod caisson foundations,the traditional tripod foundation has a relatively high ultimate lateral capacity at the omnidirectional loading angle.By analyzing the displacement of the caissons,a formula for the rotational center of the tripod caisson foundation subjected to an eccentric lateral load was derived.The depth of the rotation center was 0.68–0.92 times the height of the caisson when the bearing capacity reached the limit.Under the undrained condition,suction was generated under the lid of the“up-lift”caisson,which helps resist lateral forces from the wind and waves.

Capacity and failure mechanism of laterally loaded jet-grouting reinforced piles: Field and numerical investigation

This study presents the results of field and numerical investigations of lateral stiffness, capacity, and failure mechanisms for plain piles and reinforced concrete piles in soft clay. A plastic-damage model is used to simulate concrete piles and jet-grouting in the numerical analyses. The field study and numerical investigations show that by applying jet-grouting sur- rounding the upper 7.5D （D = pile diameter） of a pile, lateral stiffness and beating capacity of the pile are increased by about 110% and 100%, respectively. This is partially because the jet-grouting increases the apparent diameter of the pile, so as to en- large the extent of failure wedge and hence passive resistance in front of the reinforced pile. Moreover, the jet-grouting pro- vides a circumferential confinement to the concrete pile, which suppresses development of tensile stress in the pile. Corre- spondingly, tension-induced plastic damage in the concrete pile is reduced, causing less degradation of stiffness and strength of the pile than that of a plain pile. Effectiveness of the circumferential confinement provided by the jet-grouting, however, diminishes once the grouting cracks because of the significant vertical and circumferential tensile stress near its mid-depth. The lateral capacity of the jet-grouting reinforced pile is, therefore, governed by mobilized passive resistance of soil and plastic damage of jet-grouting.

Flow-pipe-soil coupling mechanisms and predictions for submarine pipeline instability

The stability of a submarine pipeline on the seabed concerns the flow-pipe-soil coupling, with influential factors related to the ocean waves and/or currents, the pipeline and the surrounding soils. A flow-pipe-soil coupling system generally has various instability modes, including the vertical and lateral on-bottom instabilities, the tunnel-erosion of the underlying soil and the subsequent vortex-induced vibrations（VIVs） of free-spanning pipelines. This paper reviews the recent advances of the slip-line field solutions to the bearing capacity, the flow-pipe-soil coupling mechanism and the prediction for the lateral instability, the multi-physical coupling analysis of the tunnel-erosion, and the coupling mechanics between the VIVs and the local scour. It is revealed that the mechanism competition always exists among various instability modes, e.g., the competition between the lateral-instability and the tunnel-erosion. Finally, the prospects and scientific challenges for predicting the instability of a long-distance submarine pipeline are discussed in the context of the deep-water oil and gas exploitations.