A Comparative Study of Cloud Liquid Water Content from Radiosonde Data at a Tropical Location

In this paper, some features of cloud liquid water content with respect to rain and water vapor are presented. Cloud liquid water density profile is obtained from radiosonde observation with Salonen's model and Karsten's model at Kolkata, a tropical location in the Indian region. Cloud liquid water contents (LWC) are obtained from these profiles which show a prominent seasonal variation. The monsoon months exhibit much higher values of LWC than in other months. However Salonen's model yields higher LWC values than that obtained with Karsten's model. The variation of daily total rainfall with LWC shows a positive relationship indicating the role of LWC in controlling the rainfall. Also the variation pattern of LWC with integrated water vapor (IWV) content of the atmosphere indicates that a threshold value of water vapor is required for cloud to form and once cloud is formed LWC increases with IWV.

Aircraft Observations of Liquid and Ice in Midlatitude Mixed-Phase Clouds

ABSTRACT This paper reports airborne measurements of midlatitude altostratus clouds observed over Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China on 3 March 2007. The case demonstrates mixed-phase conditions at altitudes from 3200 to 4600 m （0°C to -7.6°C）, with liquid water content ranging from 0.01 to 0.09 g m-3. In the observed mixed-phase cloud, liquid water content exhibited a bimodal distribution, whereas the maximum ice particle concentration was located in the middle part of the cloud. The liquid and ice particle data showed significant horizontal variability on the scale of a few hundred meters. The cloud droplet concentration varied greatly over the horizontal sampling area. There was an inverse relationship between the cloud droplet concentration and ice particle concentration. A gamma distribution provided the best description of the cloud droplet spectra. The liquid droplet distributions were found to increase in both size and concentration with altitude. It was inferred from the profile of the spectra parameters that the cloud droplet sizes tend to form a quasi-monodisperse distribution. Ice particle spectra in the cloud were fitted well by an exponential distribution. Finally, a remarkable power law relationship was found between the slope （λ） and intercept （No） parameters of the exponential size distribution.

Magnitude and Trends of High-elevation Cloud Water Pollutant Concentrations and Modeled Deposition Fluxes

Cloud water samples, LWC （Liquid Water Content） and meteorological data were collected at the Clingmans Dome, Tennessee, high-elevation site in Great Smoky Mountains National Park during the warm season from 1994 through 2011. This paper presents results from 2000 through the conclusion of the study in 2011. Samples were analyzed for SO42＂, NO3, NH4＋ and H＋. These measurements were supplemented by measurements of ambient air and precipitation concentrations to estimate dry and wet deposition. Cloud water concentrations, LWC, cloud frequency, various meteorological measurements and information on nearby forest canopy were used to model cloud water deposition to gauge trends in deposition. Total deposition was calculated as the sum of cloud, dry and wet deposition estimates. Concentrations and deposition fluxes declined over the study period. The decreases in cloud water SO42＂ and NO3 concentrations were 40 percent and 26 percent, respectively. Three-year mean 5042 and NO3 deposition rates decreased by 71 percent and 70 percent, respectively. Trends in concentrations and depositions were comparable with trends in SO2 and NOx emissions from Tennessee Valley Authority power plants and aggregated emission reductions from electric generating units in adjacent states. Back trajectories were simulated with the HYSPLIT model and aggregated over cloud sampling periods from 2000 through 2007 and 2009 through 2011. Trajectories during periods with high H＋ concentrations traveled over local EGU （Electric Generating Unit） emission sources in Tennessee and Kentucky to the Ohio River Valley, Alabama and Georgia with the conclusion that these source regions contributed to acidic cloud water deposition at Clingmans Dome. This work was supported by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the Tennessee Valley Authority with infrastructure support provided by the National Park Service.

Properties of Cloud and Precipitation over the Tibetan Plateau

The characteristics of seasonal precipitation over the Tibetan Plateau （TP） were investigated using TRMM （Tropical Rain- fall Measuring Mission） precipitation data （3B43）. Sensitive regions of summer precipitation interannual variation anomalies were investigated using EOF （empirical orthogonal function） analysis. Furthermore, the profiles of cloud water content （CWC） and precipitable water in different regions and seasons were analyzed using TRMM-3A12 data observed by the TRMM Microwave Imager. Good agreement was found between hydrometeors and precipitation over the eastern and southeastern TP, where water vapor is adequate, while the water vapor amount is not significant over the western and northern TE Further analysis showed meridional and zonal anomalies of CWC centers in the ascending branch of the Hadley and Walker Circulation, especially over the south and east of the TE The interannual variation of hydrometeors over the past decade showed a decrease over the southeastern and northwestern TP, along with a corresponding increase over other regions.

Comparison of Cloud Properties between Cloud Sat Retrievals and Airplane Measurements in Mixed-Phase Cloud Layers of Weak Convective and Stratus Clouds

Cloud microphysical properties including liquid and ice particle number concentration （NC）, liquid water content （LWC）, ice water content （IWC） and effective radius （RE） were retrieved from CloudSat data for a weakly convective and a widespread stratus cloud. Within the mixed-phase cloud layers, liquid-phase fractions needed to be assumed in the data retrieval process, and one existing linear （Pl） and two exponential （P2 and P3） functions, which estimate the liquid-phase fraction as a function of subfreezing temperature （from -20℃ to 0℃）, were tested. The retrieved NC, LWC, IWC and RE using Pl were on average larger than airplane measurements in the same cloud layer, Function P2 performed better than p1 or P3 in retrieving the NCs of cloud droplets in the convective cloud, while function Pl performed better in the stratus cloud. Function P3 performed better in LWC estimation in both convective and stratus clouds. The REs of cloud droplets calculated using the retrieved cloud droplet NC and LWC were closer to the values of in situ observations than those retrieved directly using the Pl function. The retrieved NCs of ice particles in both convective and stratus clouds, on the assumption of liquid-phase fraction during the retrieval of liquid droplet NCs, were closer to those of airplane observations than on the assumption of function P1.

NUMERICAL STUDY OF REMOTE SENSING OF CLOUD LIQUID WATER CONTENT BY SPACE-BORNE COMBINED RADAR-RADIOMETER

A retrieval method of microwave(MW)space-borne remote sensing of cloud liquid water content by the combined radar-radiometer is suggested.A three-layer cloud model is chosen to represent the typical stratified precipitating cloud.The retrieval method mainly follows our previously suggested scheme with some modifications.Numerical comparative study shows that in space-borne remote sensing of cloud liquid water content by the combined method is much better than by radar only;Also the retrieval accuracy of cloud liquid water content may be improved when using the three-layer cloud model in the combined method.

Relationship between Cloud Characteristics and Radar Reflectivity Based on Aircraft and Cloud Radar Co-observations

Cloud properties were investigated based on aircraft and cloud radar co-observation conducted at Yitong, Jilin, Northeast China. The aircraft provided in situ measurements of cloud droplet size distribution, while the millimeter-wavelength cloud radar vertically scanned the same cloud that the aircraft penetrated. The reflectivity factor calculated from aircraft measurements was compared in detail with sinmltaneous radar observations. The results showed that the two reflectivities were comparable in warm clouds, but in ice cloud there were more differences, which were probably associated with the occurrence of liquid water. The acceptable agreement between reflectivities obtained in water cloud confirmed that it is feasible to derive cloud properties by using aircraft data, and hence for cloud radar to remotely sense cloud properties. Based on the dataset collected in warm clouds, the threshold of reflectivity to diagnose drizzle and cloud particles was studied by analyses of the probability distribution function of reflectivity from cloud particles and drizzle drops. The relationship between refiectivity factor （Z） and cloud liquid water content （LWC） was also derived from data on both cloud particles and drizzle. In comparison with cloud droplets, the relationship for drizzle was blurred by many scatter points and thus was less evident. However, these scatters could be partly removed by filtering out the drop size distribution with a large ratio of reflectivity and large extinction coefficient but small effective radius. Empirical relationships of Z-LWC for both cloud particles and drizzle could then be derived.

Retrieval of Oceanic Total Precipitable Water Vapor and Cloud Liquid Water from Fengyun-3D Microwave Sounding Instruments

Fengyun-3 D(FY-3 D) satellite is the latest polar-orbiting meteorological satellite launched by China and carries 10 instruments onboard. Its microwave temperature sounder(MWTS) and microwave humidity sounder(MWHS) can acquire a total of 28 channels of brightness temperatures, providing rich information for profiling atmospheric temperature and moisture. However, due to a lack of two important frequencies at 23.8 and 31.4 GHz, it is difficult to retrieve the total precipitable water vapor(TPW) and cloud liquid water path(CLW) from FY-3 D microwave sounder data as commonly done for other microwave sounding instruments. Using the channel similarity between Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership(NPP) advanced technology microwave sounder(ATMS) and FY-3 D microwave sounding instruments, a machine learning(ML) technique is used to generate the two missing low-frequency channels of MWTS and MWHS. Then, a new dataset named as combined microwave sounder(CMWS) is obtained,which has the same channel setting as ATMS but the spatial resolution is consistent with MWTS. A statistical inversion method is adopted to retrieve TPW and CLW over oceans from the FY-3 D CMWS. The intercomparison between different satellites shows that the inversion products of FY-3 D CMWS and Suomi NPP ATMS have good consistency in magnitude and distribution. The correlation coefficients of retrieved TPW and CLW between CMWS and ATMS can reach 0.95 and 0.85, respectively.

基于CloudSat资料的洋面非降水暖云空间分布及云内液相水含量垂直结构

利用CloudSat卫星搭载的云廓线雷达(cloud profiling radar,CPR)2007~2009年三年的观测资料,针对洋面非降水暖云有效廓线样本,分别对积云(Cu)、层云(St)、层积云(Sc)和高积云(Ac)等四类云型,分析了其在全球尺度的水平分布特征,并在此基础上特别考察了非降水暖云液相水含量(liquid water content,LWC)的垂直变化特性.研究发现,洋面非降水暖云中四类云型的样本占比从高至低依次为层积云76.46%、层云12.48%、积云7.45%、高积云3.61%,层积云在非降水暖云的总覆盖面积中占据主导作用.在样本量全球标准化后,四类云型的空间分布形式存在较大差异,层积云与层云主要集中于北美和南美大陆西侧近岸海域,积云与高积云则广泛分布于太平洋、大西洋和印度洋的洋面上,且高值位于大洋中部.尽管四类云型的生消机制和宏观形态存在很大差异,但不同云型LWC呈现出较为相似的垂直结构.对经几何厚度标准化后的LWC廓线进行比较,发现在四类典型非降水暖云中,由云底到云顶LWC一致呈现为先增后减的规律.云体中下部向上近似线性递增的结构基本反映了LWC的准绝热增长特性,而云体上部及云顶附近的向上递减结构明确反映了云顶普遍受到上空干空气侵入混合的强烈影响,由此导致了自云顶向下逐层衰减的云水蒸发.以云高和云厚两个参数分类的廓线统计结果还显示,LWC垂直结构受到云顶高度和云层几何厚度的影响.云层几何厚度增大时,LWC由云底到云中的递增结构会变厚,由云中到云顶的递减结构会变薄.几何厚度相同但云顶高度不同的云层,其LWC含量也有所不同,这表明对于特定云型,在生成及发展过程中,不同阶段所对应的LWC廓线结构也存在差异.

青藏高原东侧九龙夏季非降水云的观测特征

青藏高原东侧九龙地区是西南涡多发区,利用该地区新型探测设备开展云探测,有助于增强对西南涡多发区云特征的认识。利用2018—2019年6—8月九龙站地基微波辐射计资料,分析了该地区夏季非降水云的出现率、液态水路径及过冷水路径的观测特征。结果表明:九龙夏季非降水云出现率月均值在67%~82%之间,以低云和中云为主,高云较少;低云出现率表现为白天低、夜间高,而中云和高云则相反;云出现率的垂直分布表现为单峰形态,在约2km高度存在云出现率峰值8.1%;受大气热力层结日变化影响,云出现率的单峰垂直分布呈现日夜差异。另外,九龙夏季非降水云的液态水路径均值为0.433kg·m^(-2),其中低云、中云、高云的液态水路径均值分别为0.665、0.240、0.102kg·m^(-2);低云的液态水路径日变化特征与其出现率相似,而中云和高云的液态水路径日变化特征不明显。此外,九龙夏季非降水云中冷云的过冷水路径均值为0.154kg·m^(-2),其中低云、中云、高云的过冷水路径均值分别为0.065、0.166、0.102kg·m^(-2);总体上过冷水路径在液态水路径中的占比约为34.3%~38.8%,过冷水路径占比随云的高度而增大,这使得中云和高云的过冷水路径日变化与其液态水路径相似。与同纬度华中地区相比,九龙夏季非降水云具有明显不同的特征,这与两地之间的大气水汽特征差异密切相关。

长江三角洲地区高空云过程气溶胶——云相互作用的观测研究

气溶胶—云相互作用过程对于评估大气云和气溶胶的寿命及气候效应至关重要。目前关于气溶胶—云相互作用的研究主要以飞机航测、卫星反演和模式模拟为主,地基直接观测由于布置难度大、实验时间长、人力物力耗费等原因开展得较少。当前针对气溶胶—云相互作用机制的理解还比较低,亟需外场观测资料深入认识其过程。本研究以长江三角洲地区高山站点的云雾为背景,利用雾滴谱仪、地用逆流虚拟撞击器、混合凝聚核粒子计数器、扫描电迁移率颗粒物粒径谱仪等仪器,研究了大明山顶(海拔1483 m)7月份多云雾期间云滴和气溶胶的特性,探讨了气溶胶对云形成和发展的影响以及云对气溶胶颗粒物的清除作用。云形成初期对气溶胶颗粒物的清除率约为20%~50%。研究显示水汽过饱和度越高且颗粒物粒径越大,清除率越高,这表明粒径较大的吸湿性颗粒物容易活化为云凝结核。对比同一云雾事件中气溶胶数浓度差异较大的三个阶段,我们发现较低的气溶胶数浓度有利于形成液态水含量高的浓云,此时云团由数量相对较少而粒径大的云滴组成,而大气颗粒物数量增多会使云雾变淡,此时的云团由大量细小的云滴组成。本研究分析了8μm以上云滴的云凝结核数量分布特征,发现大云滴的云凝结核几乎都是100 nm以上的颗粒物;随着气溶胶数浓度升高,8μm以上大云滴的数量减少,且大云滴云凝结核的平均直径变大。这些结果显示气溶胶数浓度升高会促使云滴的数量增多而等效直径变小,在水汽有限的自然环境中,气溶胶数浓度越高,颗粒物的临界活化直径越大。总之,我们发现大气气溶胶的数浓度—粒径分布特性影响着云滴的数量和粒径,云的形成和发展也对气溶胶颗粒物有较强的清除作用。

中国北方水汽与云和降水的关系

利用中国35°N以北地区1961年1月1日-2001年12月31日58个探空站逐日高空观测资料以及地面观测的逐日总云量、低云量、降水量资料,分析了42a来中国北方各区水汽质量分数的变化特征,水汽质量分数与总云量、低云量以及降水量的年际变化特征,逐区讨论了水汽质量分数与总云量、低云量和降水量的相关关系.结果表明:中国北方地区42a水汽质量分数有微弱的增加;水汽质量分数与云量、降水量呈明显的正相关.水汽质量分数与云量、降水量的相关中,平均水汽质量分数与低云量、降水量的正相关最显著;云量与降水量的相关中,低云量与降水量的相关最显著.这三种相关的季节变化特征均为春季最显著,秋、夏季次之,冬季最弱.沙区的各相关系数均低于非沙区的,说明荒漠化对空中水资源也有一定的影响,尤其是在沙尘暴多发的春季,这一影响就更显著了.

西太平洋赤道海域上空可降水和云液态水的遥感分析

根据1985—1989年中国科学院组织的西太平洋热带海域(0—5°N,110—150°E)综合考察过程中船载双通道微波辐射计五年累计获得的22599组观测资料,以及NOAA极轨卫星资料,综合分析了该海域中水汽总量和云液态水的统计特征及其年际变化,水汽场的整层与下层关系,可降水的日变化及空间分布等特征.指出了某些与陆地上不同的特点,为气候及海上边界层研究提供了有意义的观测事实.同时,给出了五年中辐射计探测与探空测值的统计比较结果.

降水性层状云微物理结构个例分析

对 2 0 0 0年 4月 1 4日河南省一次降水性层状云系进行了飞机探测。利用探测所取得的微物理资料 ,配合同期的天气、卫星、雷达等资料对云的微物理特征进行了分析 ,讨论了云中液态水含量。

祁连山区云光学特征的遥感反演与云水资源的分布特征分析

利用Terra和Aqua卫星上载的MODIS探测器接收资料和祁连山区及周边气象台站6 h降水量资料, 应用6S辐射传输模式和Mie模式, 针对2002-2005年以来的18次大范围云覆盖的祁连山区, 反演了云的光学厚度、云粒子有效半径以及云液态含水量等参数, 结合地理信息系统分析了其随海拔高度变化的分布特征及其与地面降雨量的关系. 结果表明： 祁连山区云的光学厚度、云粒子有效半径以及云液态含水量分布受地形影响具有显著的地域差异, 最大值分布在海拔4 300 m以下的山区, 是云水资源丰富区和易降水区; 云宏观特征参数与地面6 h降水量成正相关关系, 产生降水概率较大的云光学厚度在8～20之间, 云粒子有效半径在6～12 μm之间, 云液态含水量在0.04 g·m^-3就能产生降水. 祁连山区云液态含水量可高达0.15 g·m^-3, 表明山区云水资源具有很大的开发潜力.

机载微波辐射计测云中液态水含量(Ⅱ):反演方法

介绍了机载对空微波辐射计探测云中路径积分液态水含量(L)的辐射传输原理和反演方法;根据吉林省长春市的历史探空资料和典型的层状云液水垂直分布模式,得到该地区4～7月各月随高度而变化的反演公式系数的表达式,并给出了反演误差的数值模拟检验结果:在地面反演值对"真值"的统计相对偏差是15%～25%,在6km高度处为5%～10%,表明该方法已具有实用可接受的精度。此外,为减少由于回归样本中云液水廓线的"失真"给反演造成的误差,本文在对探空廓线作诊断建立云液水廓线时,引入了实际目测最低云底高的信息。数值模拟比较表明,该措施行之有效,使对流层中下层几乎所有高度上L反演值的精度提高了5%～20%,观测高度越低,精度提高的越多。

降水云中液水含量的空基遥感

在建立不同降水云垂直结构模式的基础上 ,利用矢量微波辐射传输模式进行空基云雨遥感的数值试验。结果表明 :星载微波辐射计 6 9GHz通道对降水云的冰层很不敏感 ,而对降水云柱总液水含量 (LWC)非常敏感 ;辐射亮温 (Tb)随LWC呈单调变化关系 ;进一步考查这个频率下Tb 的两个极化分量差ΔTb( =Tbv -Tbh)和LWC的关系发现 ,不同云结构 (对流云和层状云 )对ΔTb LWC关系影响较小。研究分析表明 ,6 9GHz的v。

地基微波辐射计探测在黄河上游人工增雨中的应用

利用2003、2004年夏秋季在青海省河南县的地基双频段微波辐射计连续观测资料，在实施系统探测实验以进行辐射亮温值（TB（23．87），TB（31．65））与大气汽态总水汽含量（Q）和云中积分液态水含量（L）值反演处理的基础上，分析了黄河上游河曲地区的云水特征，并进行了降水预测及人工增雨作业指标的探讨。结果表明：在黄河上游河曲地区，7—9月纯晴天无云天气条件下，L值基本为0，表明了统计回归反演的显著性。多云条件下Q值和L值分别在3．76～4．75g·cm^-2、227．34～859．42g·m^-2的范围内。可降水云天气，Q值在5．23～8．65g·cm^-2间，L值在421．18～1016．37g·m^-2的范围内；积雨云个例分析表明，在降雨开始前近5小时的降雨酝酿期内，Q及L的增加有明显的波动，但在对流云出现并发展时，Q和L总是急剧上升，在降雨前达到一峰值；由河南站和西安站的Q、L值比较差异可以看出，Q、L值受水汽输送、地形等因素的影响，黄河上游河曲地区的人工增雨潜力有显著的优势；所计算出的降水预测阈值。可作为该地区人工增雨作业指标的参考。

石家庄地区一次秋季冷锋云系垂直微物理结构的观测研究

利用2008年10月4～5日石家庄一次降水性层状云系的飞机探测资料,结合实时天气、卫星、雷达等资料,分析了降水过程的天气背景条件、降水初期云中的液态含水量、云粒子平均直径和粒子谱等要素的垂直分布与变化特征,以及云系的垂直微物理结构。结合云中冰雪晶二维粒子图像的增长和地面降水特征,初步探讨了该层状云系降水形成的物理机制。结果表明,此次降水为北方秋季典型的较稳定性冷锋降水过程,云系由高层卷云、中层高层云、低层层积云组成,垂直结构特征明显;云系微物理要素的垂直分布结构与粒子增长过程符合顾震潮先生的三层模型的冷云降水形成机制。

地基微波辐射计资料在降水分析中的应用

利用武汉MP-3000A型地基微波辐射计,采集降水前大气水汽含量和云液态水含量数据,结合历史观测的气象资料,详细分析了降水前一小时大气水汽含量、云液态水含量的分布和演变与降水的关系,结果表明:1)大雨开始前一刻对应的V(大气水汽含量)值≥6.5 cm,中雨对应的V值接近6 cm,小雨对应的V值在5～6 cm之间;2)V值超过5 cm,L(云液态水含量)值超过1 mm可以作为判断降水临近的一个参考指标;3)降水开始前一小时,大气水汽含量的增长大致分为平稳增长和先增长到一个峰值然后下降,在临近降水前5～10 min又再次跃增这两种情况;4)将各量级降水前一小时的L、V值去除背景值后可发现,L值的大小、波动范围及波动趋势基本无变化;V值的大小和波动范围有所减小,但其波动趋势无明显变化;5)将数据做FFT变换后,V、L值在第一个转折点处表现出的不同特征可作为判断降水临近的一个指标。