Automatic recognition of loess landforms using Random Forest method

The automatic recognition of landforms is regarded as one of the most important procedures to classify landforms and deepen the understanding on the morphology of the earth. However, landform types are rather complex and gradual changes often occur in these landforms, thus increasing the difficulty in automatically recognizing and classifying landforms. In this study, small-scale watersheds, which are regarded as natural geomorphological elements, were extracted and selected as basic analysis and recognition units based on the data of SRTM DEM. In addition, datasets integrated with terrain derivatives(e.g., average slope gradient, and elevation range) and texture derivatives(e.g., slope gradient contrast and elevation variance) were constructed to quantify the topographical characteristics of watersheds. Finally, Random Forest(RF) method was employed to automatically select features and classify landforms based on their topographical characteristics. The proposed method was applied and validated in seven case areas in the Northern Shaanxi Loess Plateau for its complex andgradual changed landforms. Experimental results show that the highest recognition accuracy based on the selected derivations is 92.06%. During the recognition procedure, the contributions of terrain derivations were higher than that of texture derivations within selected derivative datasets. Loess terrace and loess mid-mountain obtained the highest accuracy among the seven typical loess landforms. However, the recognition precision of loess hill, loess hill–ridge, and loess sloping ridge is relatively low. The experiment also shows that watershed-based strategy could achieve better results than object-based strategy, and the method of RF could effectively extract and recognize the feature of landforms.

Geomorphological inheritance for loess landform evolution in a severe soil erosion region of Loess Plateau of China based on digital elevation models

The influence of pre-quaternary underlying terrain on the formation of loess landforms, i.e., the geomorphological inheritance issue, is a focus in studies of loess landforms. On the basis of multi-source information, we used GIS spatial analysis methods to construct a simulated digital elevation model of a pre-quaternary paleotopographic surface in a severe soil erosion area of the Loess Plateau. To reveal the spatial relationship between underlying paleotopography and modern terrain, an XY scatter diagram, hypsometric curve, gradient and concavity of terrain profiles are used in the experiments. The experiments show that the altitude, gradient and concavity results have significant linear positive correlation between both terrains, which shows a relatively strong landform inheritance relationship, particularly in the intact and complete loess deposit areas. Despite the current surface appearing somewhat changed from the original shape of the underlying terrain under different erosion forces, we reveal that the modern terrain generally smoothes the topographic relief of underlying terrain in the loess deposition process. Our results deepen understanding of the characteristics of geomorphological inheritance in the formation and evolution of loess landforms.

Paleotopographic controls on modern gully evolution in the loess landforms of China

The inhomogeneous and non-flat paleotopography in a depositional landform area profoundly controls the process of modem gully evolution and shapes the structure of a gully network. However, this controlling effect of paleotopography on modem gully evolution is mostly ignored because of the difficulties in paleotopography reconstruction. In this study, loess area in China is selected as case area for its typical depositional landform area and inhomogeneous and non-flat paleotopography during the Quaternary. The paleotopography underlying loess is considered while evaluating its controlling effects on the gully evolutionary process. On the basis of the geophysical prospecting, detailed geological information, and high-resolution digital elevation model, we reconstruct the pre-Quaternary paleotopographic surface in the case area. Comparative analysis is conducted to reveal the modern gully evolution in relation to the paleotopography. Results show that the concave area of the paleotopography acts as the basement of the high-order modern gully evolution in the hilly-gully area, although this concave area can be covered and buried by the loess depositional process during the Quaternary. A significant controlling effect of paleotopography on high-order modern gully evolution can be observed in a depositional landform with a hilly-gully underlying topography, whereas a relatively weak controlling effect exists in a flat underlying topograpnlcal area oecause of the strong horizontal shift effect of gully formation process. Several low-order modern gullies also exist and limit the controlling effect of paleotopography. These results reveal a controlled high-order modern gully evolutionary process and a rather dynamic low-order modem gully evolutionary process in the hilly-gully area. These results also help us understand the variations in different modern gully evolution in relation to paleotopography and the different management schemes for soil conservation and ecological restoration during the gully evolutionary process.

Clustering gully profiles for investigating the spatial variation in landform formation on the Chinese Loess Plateau

The gully is the most dynamic and changeable landform unit on the Loess Plateau,and the characteristics of gully landforms are key indicators of gully evolution.Different gully profiles are connected and combined through runoff nodes.Thus,it is necessary to cluster gully profiles into a gully profile combination(GPC)to reveal the spatial variation in gully landforms throughout the Loess Plateau.First,the gradient and gully evolution index(GEI)of two sample areas in Changwu and Suide in Shaanxi Province,China are calculated and analysed based on GPC.Then,the gradient and GEI are calculated by using 90-m-resolution digital elevation model(DEM)data for the severe soil erosion area with the basin as the research unit.On this basis,the spatial variation in the development degree is analysed with Getis-Ord Gi*.The results show that the degree of gully undercutting decreases from southeast to northwest under the influence of rainfall.Due to the soil properties,the loess in the northwest is more prone to collapse,resulting in the decrease of GEI from northwest to southeast.The development degree of gullies is closely related to rivers.The strong erosive capacity of rivers leads to greater differences in gullies within the basin.At the same time,the skewness and kurtosis of the gully index in the basin are correlated;when the distribution of the gully index in the basin is less normal,the distribution of the gully index is more concentrated.These results reveal the spatial variation characteristics of the Loess Plateau based on GPC.

Extraction and Analysis of Gully Head of Loess Plateau in China Based on Digital Elevation Model

In China′s Loess Plateau area, gully head is the most active zone of a drainage system in gully areas. The differentiation of loess gully head follows geospatial patterns and reflects the process of the loess landform development and evolution of its drainage system to some extent. In this study, the geomorphic meaning, basic characteristics, morphological structure and the basic types of loess gully heads were systematically analysed. Then, the loess gully head′s conceptual model was established, and an extraction method based on Digital Elevation Model(DEM) for loess gully head features and elements was proposed. Through analysing the achieved statistics of loess gully head features, loess gully heads have apparently similar and different characteristics depending on the different loess landforms where they are found. The loess head characteristics reflect their growth period and evolution tendency to a certain degree, and they indirectly represent evolutionary mechanisms. In addition, the loess gully developmental stages and the evolutionary processes can be deduced by using loess gully head characteristics. This study is of great significance for development and improvement of the theoretical system for describing loess gully landforms.

The paleogeographic implications of loess mounds: Laizhou Bay plain

The loess mounds are a newly discovered type of landforms on the Laizhou Bay plain south of the Bohai Sea. Research shows that they were formed in the late period of the late Pleistocene when the Bohai Sea was exposed in the period of late W黰u glacial age and changed into plain. As the exposed area is not protected by vegetation, the sediments at the sea bottom are blown and transported southward by strong north winds, and deposit on the coastal plains. As thick loess is accumulated, the loess mound landforms are formed in the direction of down wind.

Quantifying spatial scale of positive and negative terrains pattern at watershed-scale:Case in soil and water conservation region on Loess Plateau

The positive and negative terrains(P-N terrains) widely distributed across China's Loess Plateau constitute the dual structure characteristic of loess landforms. Analysis of loess P-N terrains at the watershed scale can serve to elucidate the structural characteristics and spatial patterns of P-N terrains, which benefits a better understanding of watershed evolution and suitable scales for loess landform research. The Two-Term Local Quadrat Variance Analysis(TTLQV) is calculated as the average of the square of the difference between the block totals of all possible adjacent pairs of block size, which can be used to detect both the scale and the intensity of landscape patches(e.g., plant/animal communities and gully networks). In this study, we determined the latitudinal and longitudinal spatial scale of P-N terrain patterns within 104 uniformly distributed watersheds in our target soil and water conservation region. The results showed that TTLQV is very effective for examining the scale of P-N terrain patterns. There were apparently three types of P-N terrain pattern in latitudinal direction(i.e., Loess Tableland type, Loess Hill type, and Transitional Form between Sand and Loess type), whereas there were both lower and higher values for P-N terrain pattern scales in all loess landforms in the longitudinal direction. The P-N terrain pattern alsoclearly presented anisotropy, suggesting that gully networks in the main direction were well-developed while others were relatively undeveloped. In addition, the relationships between the first scales and controlling factors(i.e., gully density, nibble degree, watershed area, mean watershed slope, NDVI, precipitation, loess thickness, and loess landforms) revealed that the first scales are primarily controlled by watershed area and loess landforms. This may indicate that the current spatial pattern of P-N terrains is characterized by internal force. In selecting suitable study areas in China' Loess Plateau, it is crucial to understand four control variables: the spatial scale of the P-N terrain pattern, the watershed area, the main direction of the watershed, and the loess landforms.

Hierarchy structure characteristics analysis for the China Loess watersheds based on gully node calibration

A land surface region can be decomposed into a series of watershed units with a hierarchical organizational structure. For loess landform, the watershed is a basic spatial–structural unit that can express natural landforms, surface morphology characteristics, spatial organization and developmental evolution. In this research we adopted the concept of node calibration in the watershed structure unit, selected six complete watersheds on China Loess Plateau as the research areas to study the quantitative characteristics of the hierarchical structure in terms of watershed geomorphology based on digital elevation model(DEM) data, and then built a watershed hierarchical structure model that relies on gully structure feature points. We calculated the quantitative indices, such as elevation, flow accumulation and hypsometric integral and found there are remarkably closer linear correlation between flow accumulation and elevation with increasing gully order, and the same variation tendency of hypsometric integral also presented. The results showed that the characteristics of spatial structure become more stable, and the intensity of spatial aggregation gradually enhances with increasing gully order. In summary, from the view of gully node calibration, the China Loess watershed structure shows more significantly complex, and the developmental situation variation of the loess landforms also exhibited a fairly stable status with gully order increasing. So, the loess watershed structure and its changes constructed the complex system of the loess landform, and it has the great significance for studying the spatial pattern and evolution law of the watershed geomorphology.

等高线形态知识与图神经网络联合作用下的黄土地貌类型识别

地貌类型识别是多因素联合影响下的复杂决策问题。由于地貌区域环境的广泛性、差异性及地学要素作用的复杂性,简单地引入人工智能方法,通过典型样本监督学习并不能获得该问题的满意结果。因此,本文尝试将等高线形态知识这种测绘自然智能与人工智能结合,在地形形态表达规则和典型地貌类型样本训练联合驱动下,开展混合智能下黄土地貌类型识别研究,提出了整合等高线形态知识与带池化操作图神经网络(graph neural network,GNN)的地貌类型识别方法。本文方法将地貌单元的等高线建模为图结构,并将提取的等高线顶点的形态知识嵌入图节点中,采用带池化操作的GNN模型,挖掘图结构中的高层次特征和上下文信息,以识别地貌类型识别。试验结果证明了本文方法在黄土地貌类型识别上的有效性:在测试数据上获得了86.1%的F 1值,比两个对比方法高出3.0%~8.2%。

黄土高原洛河流域地貌发育特征与形成演化

黄土地貌形态特征、发育机理及演化过程等一直是地学研究的热点和前沿。选取黄土高原洛河流域作为研究对象,从坡面尺度、流域尺度、区域尺度分类选取14项地貌因子,较为全面地构建了流域地貌发育形态定量参数体系;提取646个小流域为分析单元,利用主成分分析法,获得了描述流域黄土地貌形态特征的4个主因子;这4个主因子分别反映了4种地貌形态空间格局,即南北渐变型、单中心扩散型、东西过渡型、多中心扩散型。结合流域地貌类型和地貌发育程度特征,认为黄土地貌地形起伏和垂直侵蚀特征反映了研究区的总体地貌空间格局,洛河流域黄土地貌主要是在多种因素影响下,随着水系由下游向上游不断地溯源侵蚀、下切扩展,最终形成了现今形态空间分异格局。

微生物基因检测技术在鄂尔多斯盆地神府南气田勘探中的应用

针对鄂尔多斯盆地构造复杂,储层分布差异大,气藏富集规律不明等问题,本文采用微生物基因检测技术的荧光定量PCR法测量研究区样品中油气指示基因的丰度,同时利用高通量基因测序法检测样品中的烃类微生物种群类型,分析认为,本区主要有东北部、西部、南部三个烃类异常带,展布特征与沉积认识吻合,且西部、南部有亲缘关系,东北部与二者无亲缘关系,可能与致密气、煤层气不同层系烃的逸散有关。实钻表明,本技术对于鄂尔多斯盆地致密气和煤层气混源区的含油气性评价方面具有较好的适用性,为油气有利区带筛选提供参考依据。

陕北黄土高原地貌景观资源化探讨

黄土高原地貌类型多样,景观优美,具有极大的观赏价值。以往对这种地质遗迹资源的旅游价值认识不足。现提出黄土高原地貌景观是一种旅游资源,对其进行开发是当地脱贫致富的新途径。为此,论述了黄土地貌景观的旅游资源属性、美学价值以及向旅游资源转化的可行性和景观开发利用思路,并提出了建立黄土地貌世界地质公园的建议。

典型黄土地貌类型区的地形复杂度分形研究

黄土高原地貌形态与地形复杂度自南向北有序变化,构成了举世瞩目的独特的地理景观。选择陕西省南北剖面六个典型黄土地貌样区为基本实验区,以其1∶1万栅格DEM为数据源,探讨典型黄土地貌类型区的地形复杂度分形与空间分异特征。首先提出的元分维模型方法,以计算得到的DEM元分维值作为特征指标,研究样区的地形复杂度问题。这种通过滑动窗口的扩展分维分析方法,既可以用于分析该区域不同尺度下的地形复杂度变化情况,也可以探讨区域的局部单元复杂程度及其空间分布,从而不再局限于对全区域的单一分维评价。以此为基础,进一步应用元分维谱方法,研究地貌网格单元的元分维分级分布情况。实验结果表明:以绥德和延川为代表的黄土峁状丘陵沟壑区最为复杂,以宜君和甘泉为代表的梁状丘陵沟壑区居中,而以淳化为代表的黄土塬区和以神木为代表的风沙黄土过渡区最为平缓。实验进一步证明了扩展分形方法在黄土地貌研究中的可行性。

子午岭林区北部近50年植被的变化发展

子午岭林区的北部 ,地貌上具有黄土丘陵沟壑的特点。该区植被的演替序列为 :从弃耕地先锋群落开始 ,经草本、灌木群落时期到早期森林群落山杨 (Populus davidiana)林或白桦 (Betula platyphylla)林、侧柏 (Platycladus orientalis)林等 ,进而到后期森林群落辽东栎(Quercus liaotungensis)林或油松 (Pinus tabulaeformis)林。近 5 0年来 ,油松林和侧柏林已经或正完成向辽东栎林方向的发展。山杨林、白桦林和侧柏林为该区演替系列中的过渡时期 ,气候性的演替顶极为辽东栎林 ,油松林为亚顶极。同时该区还表现出整体向前发展的趋势 ,这明显体现在原来林区大部分为山杨林 ,而现在辽东栎林已取代山杨林成为主要林分。只有阳坡下部基岩露出的陡壁上的侧柏林仍无向前发展的征象 ,为该区的一种局部土壤性演替顶极。阴坡、半阴坡从草本群落到顶极的演替全过程需要约 1 5 0 a,阳坡、半阳坡从草本群落演替到顶极但不包含油松林阶段 (目前尚缺少这一阶段 )需要 1 5 0 a左右 ,梁顶部位的演替速度与阴坡、半阴坡大致相近。从植被的类型、分布和演替来看 。

黄土高原小流域不同地形下土壤有机碳分布特征

研究了黄土高原小流域尺度塬面、坡地、沟道和梯田4种地形条件下土壤有机碳总量和活性组分的分布、储量及碳库管理指数的差异。结果表明,小流域土壤有机碳和不同活性有机碳的变异系数介于32%—70%之间,表现出中到高度的变异特征。4种地形下各组分有机碳含量和储量以塬面土壤最高,沟道土壤最低,并随土层深度的增加而降低,降低程度随有机碳活性增强而增加。以塬面土壤为对照所获得的碳库管理指数可灵敏指示有机碳对地形条件的响应特征,中活性有机碳库管理指数的指示效果最好。研究结果可部分解释黄土高原土壤有机碳地带性分布特征。

新疆黄土地貌的遥感判读问题

新疆的黄土地貌及其遥感判读具有不同于我国黄土高原地区的一些特点。根据参与"中国1:1 000 000数字地貌制图(新疆片)"项目工作的实践和体会,从黄土地貌区的位置、色调与色彩、大小、形状、阴影、水系和纹理、植被和土壤、相关体、相关资料和野外经验等方面总结了7项关于新疆黄土地貌的遥感判读依据,并归纳了新疆黄土地貌与风沙、干燥、流水、冰缘、雅丹等地貌类型之间以及与部分特殊情况之间的一些鉴别特征。结果可为新疆未来的地貌制图及相关的科研与教学工作提供参考。

黄土丘陵地貌形成模式与地貌演变

通过对陕西北部典型黄土丘陵区地貌调查,提出了黄土丘陵地貌形成模式,并对地貌演变进行了探讨。黄土高原原生黄土丘陵分布广泛,主要在下伏古丘陵基础上由黄土加积而成;次生黄土丘陵是黄土塬、黄土台塬等经沟谷侵蚀、改造而成。黄土丘陵区河流阶地和沟谷层状地貌反映了河流、沟谷的形成与演变。黄河一级支流形成于早更新世末;早中更新世末、晚中更新世初黄河一级支流和较大的二级支流形成了较完整的水系;中更新世末如韭园沟等较大的沟谷形成;晚更新世末河网、沟谷格局与现在已基本一致;尚未切入基岩的冲沟多形成于全新世;长度百米至数十米的切沟多是历史时期或近几十年来形成的。

黄土地貌地形特征点格局研究

地形特征点广泛分布于地球表面,是反映地貌空间形态的重要点位。通过对不同地形特征点空间分布格局的研究,能够较好地探讨地形特征点群间的空间结构关系及其关联模式,并进一步映射地貌演变过程与发育机理。该文以黄土高原为研究区域,提取山顶点、鞍部点与径流节点作为地形特征点,运用点格局分析方法研究地形特征点间的空间结构特征。结果表明:1)地形特征点的空间分布规律与其地貌类型有显著相关性,而与其等级无明显相关;2)不同特征点存在较为固定的空间关联尺度,这种尺度对地貌类型不存在依赖性;3)在地貌演变的多个时期,不同特征点间的空间格局指标变化趋势具有相似性,而空间分布类型由于受地貌影响存在差异性。运用点格局研究中的相关方法,探索了地形特征点单点及多点间的格局特征,对地形特征结构及其模式研究具有参考意义。

陕北黄土区水平条带整地措施对切沟发育的影响

切沟侵蚀是土壤侵蚀的主要形式之一,严重威胁着土地资源。为了研究水平条带整地对切沟发育的影响,该研究基于间隔9 a的2期同时相QuickBird遥感影像,在陕西绥德县选取了32个小流域,应用GIS技术提取小流域内的沟缘线、植被覆盖度、坡度以及土地利用类型,估算研究区的切沟发育速率,并分析了水平条带整地对切沟发育的影响。结果表明：2004-2013年研究区内水平条带整地面积增加了16.96%,其中水平阶林地增加的最多,其次是水平梯田,而水平阶草地有所减少;32个小流域的切沟面积变化比例主要分布在0-6%,单位沟谷区面积增加比例为4.18%,且各小流域之间的差异明显;在该研究区内水平条带面积比例是影响切沟发育的最主要因子,相关系数达到-0.801。沟间地存在水平条带整地和植被覆盖度较高的情况下,地貌因子与切沟发育速率无显著相关性。水平条带整地类型的抑制切沟发展作用排序：水平阶林地〉水平阶草地〉水平梯田。该研究可为全面评价水平条带整地措施水土流失防治效果提供科学依据。

古地形对黄土区岩土侵蚀趋势的控制作用

利用高精度的GPS(卫星全球定位系统)结合RS(遥感)与GIS(地理信息系统)重建了陕北府谷黄土区一个小流域的侏罗纪(J)、第三纪(N)时期古地形数字模型(DTM),与该区现代小流域地形和土壤侵蚀的现状进行了分析对比,发现府谷黄土区经历了古准平面-古湖泊洼地-高原沟谷三大地貌发育过程,而且该小流域现代地形与侏罗纪、第三纪古侵蚀面之间具有很高的继承性,可见古地形在陕北黄土地区的岩土侵蚀过程中有着重要的控制作用,研究结果可以更好地为水土保持提供科学依据。