High-level radioactive waste disposal in China: update 2010

For geological disposal of high-level radioactive waste （HLW）, the Chinese policy is that the spent nuclear fuel （SNF） should be reprocessed first, followed by vitrification and final disposal. The preliminary repository concept is a shaft-tunnel model, located in saturated zones in granite, while the final waste form for disposal is vitrified high-level radioactive waste. In 2006, the government published a long-term research and development （R＆D） plan for geological disposal of high-level radioactive waste. The program consists of three steps： （1） laboratory studies and site selection for a HLW repository （2006-2020）; （2） underground in-situ tests （2021-2040）; and （3） repository construction （2041-2050） followed by operation. With the support of China Atomic Energy Authority, comprehensive studies are underway and some progresses are made. The site characterization, including deep borehole drilling, has been performed at the most potential Beishan site in Gansu Province, Northwestern China. The data from geological and hydrogeological investigations, in-situ stress and permeability measurements of rock mass are presented in this paper. Engineered barrier studies are concentrated on the Gaomiaozi bentonite. A mock-up facility, which is used to study the thermo-hydro-mechano-chemical （THMC） properties of the bentonite, is under construction. Several projects on mechanical properties of Beishan granite are also underway. The key scientific challenges faced with HLW disposal are also discussed.

The Beishan underground research laboratory for geological disposal of high-level radioactive waste in China:Planning, site selection,site characterization and in situ tests

With the rapid development of nuclear power in China, the disposal of high-level radioactive waste（HLW） has become an important issue for nuclear safety and environmental protection. Deep geological disposal is internationally accepted as a feasible and safe way to dispose of HLW, and underground research laboratories（URLs） play an important and multi-faceted role in the development of HLW repositories. This paper introduces the overall planning and the latest progress for China＇s URL. On the basis of the proposed strategy to build an area-specific URL in combination with a comprehensive evaluation of the site selection results obtained during the last 33 years, the Xinchang site in the Beishan area,located in Gansu Province of northwestern China, has been selected as the final site for China＇s first URL built in granite. In the process of characterizing the Xinchang URL site, a series of investigations,including borehole drilling,geological mapping, geophysical surveying,hydraulic testing and in situ stress measurements, has been conducted. The investigation results indicate that the geological,hydrogeological, engineering geological and geochemical conditions of the Xinchang site are very suitable for URL construction. Meanwhile, to validate and develop construction technologies for the Beishan URL, the Beishan exploration tunnel（BET）, which is a 50-m-deep facility in the Jiujing sub-area, has been constructed and several in situ tests, such as drill-and-blast tests, characterization of the excavation damaged zone（EDZ）, and long-term deformation monitoring of surrounding rocks, have been performed in the BET. The methodologies and technologies established in the BET will serve for URL construction.According to the achievements of the characterization of the URL site, a preliminary design of the URL with a maximum depth of 560 m is proposed and necessary in situ tests in the URL are planned.

Main outcomes from in situ thermo-hydro-mechanical experiments programme to demonstrate feasibility of radioactive high-level waste disposal in the Callovo-Oxfordian claystone

In the context of radioactive waste disposal,an underground research laboratory(URL)is a facility in which experiments are conducted to demonstrate the feasibility of constructing and operating a radioactive waste disposal facility within a geological formation.The Meuse/Haute-Marne URL is a sitespecific facility planned to study the feasibility of a radioactive waste disposal in the Callovo-Oxfordian(COx)claystone.The thermo-hydro-mechanical(THM)behaviour of the host rock is significant for the design of the underground nuclear waste disposal facility and for its long-term safety.The French National Radioactive Waste Management Agency(Andra)has begun a research programme aiming to demonstrate the relevancy of the French high-level waste(HLW)concept.This paper presents the programme implemented from small-scale(small diameter)boreholes to full-scale demonstration experiments to study the THM effects of the thermal transient on the COx claystone and the strategy implemented in this new programme to demonstrate and optimise current disposal facility components for HLW.It shows that the French high-level waste concept is feasible and working in the COx claystone.It also exhibits that,as for other plastic clay or claystone,heating-induced pore pressure increases and that the THM behaviour is anisotropic.

Key Scientific Challenges in Geological Disposal of High Level Radioactive Waste

The geological disposal of high level radioactive waste is a challenging task facing the scientific and technical world.This paper introduces the latest progress of high level radioactive disposal programs in the world,and discusses the following key scientific challenges:(1)precise prediction of the evolution of a repository site;(2)characteristics of deep geological environment;(3)behaviour of deep rock mass,groundwater and engineering material under coupled conditions(intermediate to high temperature,geostress,hydraulic,chemical,biological and radiation process,etc);(4)geochemical behaviour of transuranic radionuclides with low concentration and its migration with groundwater;and(5)safety assessment of disposal system.Several large-scale research projects and several hot topics related with high-level waste disposal are also introduced.

On area-specific underground research laboratory for geological disposal of high-level radioactive waste in China

Underground research laboratories （URLs）, including ＂generic URLs＂ and ＂site-specific URLs＂, are un- derground facilities in which characterisation, testing, technology development, and/or demonstration activities are carried out in support of the development of geological repositories for high-level radioactive waste （HLW） disposal. In addition to the generic URL and site-specific URL, a concept of ＂areaspecific URL＂, or the third type of URL, is proposed in this paper. It is referred to as the facility that is built at a site within an area that is considered as a potential area for HLW repository or built at a place near the future repository site, and may be regarded as a precursor to the development of a repository at the site. It acts as a ＂generic URL＂, but also acts as a ＂site-specific URL＂ to some extent. Considering the current situation in China, the most suitable option is to build an ＂area-specific URL＂ in Beishan area, the first priority region for China＇s high-level waste repository. With this strategy, the goal to build China＇s URL by 2020 mav be achieved, but the time left is limited.

Design and development of large-scale in-situ PRACLAY heater test and horizontal high-level radioactive waste disposal gallery seal test in Belgian HADES

In Belgium,the Boom clay was selected as a potential host formation for the disposal of high-level radioactive waste（HLW）.To demonstrate the suitability of Boom clay for bearing thermal load induced by the HLW,a large-scale in-situ heater test,called PRACLAY heater test,will be conducted in the underground research laboratory（URL） in Mol.Owing to the limitations of the test（a short period of time compared with that considered in a real repository,different boundary conditions,etc.）,the test is designed to simulate,in a conservative way,the most critical state and phenomena that could occur in the host rock.The PRACLAY gallery was excavated at the end of 2007;the heating phase will begin in 2010 and will last for at least 10 years.The PRACLAY gallery itself leaves an opportunity to study the possibilities of sealing a disposal drift in Boom clay and testing the feasibility of hydraulic cut-off of any preferential pathway to the main access gallery through the excavation damage zone（EDZ） and the lining with a seal in a horizontal drift（horizontal seal）.Indeed,this is a generic problem for all deep geological disposal facilities for HLW.An annular seal made of compacted swelling bentonite will be installed in the front of the heated part of the PRACLAY gallery for these purposes.This paper provides detailed considerations on the thermo-hydro-mechanical（THM） boundary conditions for the design of the PRACLAY heater test and the seal test with the support of numerical calculations.It is believed that these important items considered in the PRACLAY heater test design also constitute key issues for the repository design.The outcome of the PRACLAY heater test will be an important milestone for the Belgian repository design.

Behavior Simulation of High Level Radioactive waste Repository in Beishan Granite Site

This paper presents the behavior simulation of high level radioactive waste repository in Beishan granite site which is the most potential one in China.Based on the results from site characterization in Beishan granite site,the conceptual model of repository in this site is proposed and its calculation model is developed with software GoldSim.After verification,this calculation model is applied to simulate the

Study on the residence time of deep groundwater for high-level radioactive waste geological disposal

Residence time of deep groundwater is one of the most important parameters in safety and performance assessment for high-level radioactive waste geological disposal. In this study, we collected the deep groundwater samples of Jijicao in Gansu Beishan pre-selected region. The deep groundwater residence time at two depths estimated by Helium-4 accumulation method were 3.8 ka and 5.0 ka respectively upon measurement and calculation, which indicates that the deep groundwater is not derived from the deep crust circulation process. Hence, deep groundwater is featured with long residence time as well as slow circulation and update rate, and such features are conductive to the safe disposal of high-level radioactive waste.

Numerical analysis of thermal process in the near field around vertical disposal of high-level radioactive waste

For deep geological disposal of high-level radioactive waste(HLW)in granite,the temperature on the HLW canisters is commonly designed to be lower than100fiC.This criterion dictates the dimension of the repository.Based on the concept of HLW disposal in vertical boreholes,thermal process in the nearfield(host rock and buffer)surrounding HLW canisters has been simulated by using different methods.The results are drawn as follows:(a)the initial heat power of HLW canisters is the most important and sensitive parameter for evolution of temperaturefield;(b)the thermal properties and variations of the host rock,the engineered buffer,and possible gaps between canister and buffer and host rock are the additional key factors governing the heat transformation;(c)the gaps width and thefilling by water or air determine the temperature offsets between them.

Clays in radioactive waste disposal

Clays and argillites are considered in some countries as possible host rocks for nuclear waste disposal at great depth.The use of compacted swelling clays as engineered barriers is also considered within the framework of the multi-barrier concept.In relation to these concepts,various research programs have been conducted to assess the thermo-hydro-mechanical properties of radioactive waste disposal at great depth.After introducing the concepts of waste isolation developed in Belgium,France and Switzerland,the paper describes the retention and transfer properties of engineered barriers made up of compacted swelling clays in relation to microstructure features.Some features of the thermo-mechanical behaviors of three possible geological barriers,namely Boom clay（Belgium）,Callovo-Oxfordian clay（France） and Opalinus clay（Switzerland）,are then described,including the retention and transfer properties,volume change behavior,shear strength and thermal aspects.

High-Level Nuclear Wastes and the Environment: Analyses of Challenges and Engineering Strategies

The main objective of this paper is to analyze the current status of high-level nuclear waste disposal along with presentation of practical perspectives about the environmental issues involved. Present disposal designs and concepts are analyzed on a scientific basis and modifications to existing designs are proposed from the perspective of environmental safety. A new concept of a chemical heat sink is introduced for the removal of heat emitted due to radioactive decay in the spent nuclear fuel or high-level radioactive waste, and thermal spikes produced by radiation in containment materials. Mainly, UO2 and metallic U are used as fuels in nuclear reactors. Spent nuclear fuel contains fission products and transuranium elements which would remain radioactive for 104 to 108years. Essential concepts and engineering strategies for spent nuclear fuel disposal are described. Conceptual designs are described and discussed considering the long-term radiation and thermal activity of spent nuclear fuel. Notions of physical and chemical barriers to contain nuclear waste are highlighted. A timeframe for nuclear waste disposal is proposed and time-line nuclear waste disposal plan or policy is described and discussed.

围压和裂隙倾角对花岗岩力学行为的影响研究

含裂隙围岩的力学行为对高放废物地质处置库的长期稳定和安全至关重要。为研究围压和裂隙倾角对花岗岩围岩力学行为的影响,以完整花岗岩和含不同倾角贯通单裂隙的花岗岩为研究对象,开展了单轴压缩和三轴压缩试验研究。结果表明:0~10 MPa围压范围内,倾角30°和60°裂隙花岗岩分别发生了穿裂隙面破坏和沿裂隙面滑移破坏;随围压升高,倾角45°裂隙花岗岩由复合破坏转变为穿裂隙面破坏,后又在10 MPa围压条件下再次转变为倾斜“Z”字型裂纹的复合破坏。围压的存在制约了预制裂隙面的劣化作用。三轴压缩条件下低倾角裂隙花岗岩的抗压强度及变形发展曲线与完整花岗岩的结果相近,试样峰值破坏时的轴向应变在围压0,2,5,10MPa条件下分别约为0.38%,0.49%,0.59%和0.75%。沿裂隙面滑移破坏试样的抗压强度以及峰值破坏时的轴向应变均显著低于穿裂隙面破坏试样的相关结果,且其抗压强度与试验前后裂隙面的分形维数差值符合幂函数增长关系。

膨润土砌体墙受压性能及其本构模型的构建

我国高放地质处置库“三步走”战略稳步推进,研究缓冲/回填材料砌体结构力学性能及其破坏特性,可为缓冲/回填材料砌体结构的设计,以及砌块的地面堆砌储存提供基础数据。本文采用合适的压制路径将高庙子钠基膨润土粉末压制成砌块,并采用干砌方法堆砌成砌体墙,设计并进行了砌块单元间界面性能试验和轴心抗压试验,得到了砌块单元间界面剪切强度与剪切位移关系,分析了砌体墙应力-应变曲线和破坏形态。试验结果表明,砌体墙变形破坏经历特性变形、局部裂纹扩展、竖向裂纹贯通、失稳破坏和残余变形几个阶段。砌体墙的第一条裂隙出现在单个砌块单元内部,反映了砌块单元的压制质量是控制砌体墙工程性能的重要影响因素之一。基于试验数据,通过对比分析施楚贤、朱伯龙、TURNSEK和HODGKINSON及仲继清的本构关系发现,在峰前上升曲线段采用试验数据对仲继清模型参数进行修正,获得的理论应力-应变曲线与试验曲线较为吻合。

Ceramics for high level radioactive waste solidification

Several countries reprocess their nuclear spent fuel using the Purex process to recover U and Pu as MOX fuel.The high level radioactive waste(HLW)produced during this reprocessing is a complex mixture containing both radioactive(fission products,minor actinides)and non-radioactive elements.Since HLW shows high rate heat release and contains some long half-life and biologically toxic radionuclide,its treatment and disposal technology is complex,difficult and high cost.HLW treatment and disposal become a worldwide challenge and research focus.In order to minimize the potential long-term impact of HLW,studies on enhanced chemical separation processes of long-lived radionuclides are in progress.Two options are then envisaged for these separated radionuclides:(a)transmutation into short-lived or non-radioactive elements,(b)immobilization in highly durable ceramic matrix instead of borosilicate glass.In this paper,we briefly review the composition,structure,processing and product properties of some ceramic candidates for inert matrix fuels(IMF)and the immobilization of high level radioactive waste.

膨润土颗粒充填施工接缝的缓冲层膨胀力研究

在高放废物处置库中,缓冲层通常以高压实膨润土砌块拼接回填形成,这势必在金属罐、砌块、围岩之间留下不可忽略的施工接缝.通过在位于试验舱底的压实膨润土上部预留接缝,开展接缝充填膨润土颗粒工况下的试样膨胀力测试,以掌握膨润土颗粒充填施工接缝对缓冲层膨胀力特性的影响.研究结果表明:试样水化方向不同,膨胀力发展过程存在较大差异,但膨胀稳定时间差别不大;从接缝端入渗时,试样均表现出随注水时间增长,膨胀力逐步提升,直至稳定在最高膨胀力;随着接缝宽度增大,最终膨胀力出现显著降低,且膨胀稳定时间显著增加;在施工接缝中充填膨润土颗粒可显著提升缓冲层最终膨胀力,保证其“自密封”要求.

甘肃北山新场深部地下水中铀的赋存形态及其影响因素的地球化学模拟研究

核能的快速发展产生了大量的高水平放射性废物(简称高放废物),对生态环境和人类健康构成了巨大的威胁,其安全处置已成为国际放射性废物管理的重难点问题。深部地质处置被普遍认为是高放废物最安全可靠、技术上非常可行的处置方法。目前,我国已启动了甘肃北山新场高放废物地质处置地下实验室的建设,放射性元素铀在深部地下水中的形态分布及其影响因素从微观层面能为北山深地质处置性能评价提供基础数据,但尚不明晰,亟需开展相关地球化学模拟研究。基于PHREEQC中的llnl.dat数据库,添加NEA-TDB和ThermoChimie数据库中U(Ⅵ)的热力学数据,使用地球化学模拟软件PHREEQC.v3和PhreePlot.v11对铀在我国甘肃北山新场高放废物地质处置地下实验室场址BS28孔深部地下水中的赋存形态及分布进行了模拟计算,旨在厘清铀在北山深部地下水中的赋存形态,探讨pH、pE以及Ca^(2+)与HCO_(3)^(-)浓度比对铀在北山深部地下水中形态分布的影响。模拟结果表明,在该深部地下水环境下,铀主要以六价的形式存在,Ca_(2)UO_(2)(CO_(3))_(3)(aq)和CaUO_(2)(CO_(3))_(3)^(2-)是主要的赋存形态,其占比分别为84.14%和15.16%。受氧化还原氛围的影响,铀的价态在pE<1时逐渐由U(Ⅵ)转变为U(Ⅳ),且在pE=-1~1时,UO_(2)(s)和可溶性碳酸铀酰络合物可同时存在。Ca^(2+)与HCO_(3)^(-)的浓度比低倾向于形成CaUO_(2)(CO_(3))_(3)^(2-),浓度比高易于形成Ca_(2)UO_(2)(CO_(3))_(3)(aq)。Ca^(2+)-UO_(2)^(2+)-CO_(3)^(2)三元体系很大程度上会影响铀在北山深部地下水的溶解度和迁移能力。本研究结果将有助于查明铀在北山花岗岩裂隙中的迁移和吸附机理。

北山沙枣园花岗岩体随机结构面的空间分布

北山沙枣园是我国高放废物处置库的备选场址,该区域中广泛分布的随机结构面是控制岩体变形和核素迁移的关键因素.选取600 m×600 m×600 m沙枣园岩体为研究对象,采用露头节理调查和钻孔裂隙编录的方法,探究岩体随机结构面的空间分布规律.首先开展随机结构面的产状分析,并运用基于粒子群的K-means算法开展产状聚类,岩体中主要发育倾角大于65°,走向为NNE向、EW向和NW向的随机结构面,其中钻孔裂隙优势组为295.4°∠68.3°、189.5°∠71.2°、235.6°∠69.2°和66.0°∠33.0°,露头节理优势组为320°∠79°、180°∠77°、282°∠80°和231°∠67°,两者呈现相似特征;其次开展露头节理平面分析,采用Voronoi法剖分岩体,计算节理平均迹长值和中点面密度值表征剖分后的岩体节理发育特征,岩体东北部的平均迹长值约为西南部的一半,而中点面密度在岩体中部最大.据优势组拆分露头的节理参数值,相对于其他优势组,NE向与NNE向优势组的平均迹长更长,中点面密度值更大;最后开展钻孔裂隙的位置分析,据产状聚类分析结果,绘制不同优势组的走向、倾角深度分布图,裂隙呈现深度不均匀的分布特征,平均线密度为0.11 m^(–1),在[–150 m,–160 m]区间达到最大值0.60 m^(–1),在[–310 m,–370 m]区间密集发育NNE向裂隙.研究结果可以为沙枣园区域的高放废物处置提供参考依据.

模拟高放废液玻璃固化体热学性能

玻璃固化技术是目前国内外HLW(高放废液)固化处理最主要的手段。高放废液中含有镧和铀,但镧、铀对固化工艺的影响鲜有报道。为对比镧、铀对玻璃固化体熔制工艺和产品性能的影响,分析不同镧铀比例下的各方面差异,以模拟高放废液的硼硅酸盐玻璃固化体作为实验材料,采用XRD(X射线衍射)、SEM(扫描电子显微镜)等表征方法研究玻璃固化体在不同热处理温度下的析晶行为和热稳定性。结果表明:在800、900、1000℃下,不同镧/铀配比的样品外观差别不大,热处理实验证实固化体样品在800—900℃热处理温度内有晶体析出,其中800℃热处理温度析晶最为严重。

我国核电厂极低放废物的优化管理研究

随着国内放射性废物分类标准的颁布实施,各核电厂运营单位开始关注放射性废物的分类管理。其中,核电厂运行过程中产生的极低水平放射性废物,具有放射性水平低、废物量大的特点,若作为低放废物管理,不仅增加运行成本,占用核电厂废物暂存空间,而且会占用处置场的资源,不利于放射性废物最小化管理。本文分析了国内极低放废物管理现状,结合国际极低放废物管理技术和良好实践,提出我国极低放废物的优化管理建议。