Understanding gene expression variations between species is pivotal for deciphering the evolutionary diversity in phenotypes. Rhesus macaques(Macaca mulatta, MMU)and crab-eating macaques(M. fascicularis, MFA) serve as...Understanding gene expression variations between species is pivotal for deciphering the evolutionary diversity in phenotypes. Rhesus macaques(Macaca mulatta, MMU)and crab-eating macaques(M. fascicularis, MFA) serve as crucial nonhuman primate biomedical models with different phenotypes. To date, however, large-scale comparative transcriptome research between these two species has not yet been fully explored. Here, we conducted systematic comparisons utilizing newly sequenced RNA-seq data from84 samples(41 MFA samples and 43 MMU samples)encompassing 14 common tissues. Our findings revealed a small fraction of genes(3.7%) with differential expression between the two species, as well as 36.5% of genes with tissue-specific expression in both macaques. Comparison of gene expression between macaques and humans indicated that 22.6% of orthologous genes displayed differential expression in at least two tissues. Moreover,19.41% of genes that overlapped with macaque-specific structural variants showed differential expression between humans and macaques. Of these, the FAM220A gene exhibited elevated expression in humans compared to macaques due to lineage-specific duplication. In summary,this study presents a large-scale transcriptomic comparison between MMU and MFA and between macaques and humans. The discovery of gene expression variations not only enhances the biomedical utility of macaque models but also contributes to the wider field of primate genomics.展开更多
Quantification of behaviors in macaques provides crucial support for various scientific disciplines,including pharmacology,neuroscience,and ethology.Despite recent advancements in the analysis of macaque behavior,rese...Quantification of behaviors in macaques provides crucial support for various scientific disciplines,including pharmacology,neuroscience,and ethology.Despite recent advancements in the analysis of macaque behavior,research on multi-label behavior detection in socially housed macaques,including consideration of interactions among them,remains scarce.Given the lack of relevant approaches and datasets,we developed the Behavior-Aware Relation Network(BARN)for multi-label behavior detection of socially housed macaques.Our approach models the relationship of behavioral similarity between macaques,guided by a behavior-aware module and novel behavior classifier,which is suitable for multi-label classification.We also constructed a behavior dataset of rhesus macaques using ordinary RGB cameras mounted outside their cages.The dataset included 65?913 labels for19 behaviors and 60?367 proposals,including identities and locations of the macaques.Experimental results showed that BARN significantly improved the baseline SlowFast network and outperformed existing relation networks.In conclusion,we successfully achieved multilabel behavior detection of socially housed macaques with both economic efficiency and high accuracy.展开更多
Microbial translocation is a cause of systemic immune activation in HIV/SIV infection. In the present study, we found a lower CD8+ T cell activation level in Macaca leonina (northern pig-tailed macaques, NPMs) than in...Microbial translocation is a cause of systemic immune activation in HIV/SIV infection. In the present study, we found a lower CD8+ T cell activation level in Macaca leonina (northern pig-tailed macaques, NPMs) than in Macaca mulatta (Chinese rhesus macaques, ChRMs) during SIVmac239 infection. Furthermore, the levels of plasma LPS-binding protein and soluble CD14 in NPMs were lower than those in ChRMs. Compared with ChRMs, SIV-infected NPMs had lower Chiu scores, representing relatively normal intestinal mucosa. In addition, no obvious damage to the ileum or colon epithelial barrier was observed in either infected or uninfected NPMs, which differed to that found in ChRMs. Furthermore, no significant microbial translocation (Escherichia coli) was detected in the colon or ileum of infected or uninfected NPMs, which again differed to that observed in ChRMs. In conclusion, NPMs retained superior intestinal integrity and limited microbial translocation during SIV infection, which may contribute to their lower immune activation compared with ChRMs.展开更多
In some non-human primates, infants function as a social tool that can bridge relationships among group members. Infants are a desired commodity for group members, and mothers control access to them. The biological ma...In some non-human primates, infants function as a social tool that can bridge relationships among group members. Infants are a desired commodity for group members, and mothers control access to them. The biological market theory suggests that grooming is widespread and represents a commodity that can be exchanged for infant handling. As a limited resource, however, the extent to which infants are interchanged between mothers(females with an infant) and non-mothers(potential handlers,females without an infant) remains unclear. In this study, we collected behavioral data to investigate the relationship between grooming and infant handling in free-ranging Tibetan macaques(Macaca thibetana)at Mt. Huangshan, China. Our results showed that females with infants received more grooming than females without infants. After her infant was handled,mother females received more grooming than they did during daily grooming interactions. However, with the increasing number of infants within the social group, both the grooming that mothers received and the grooming that non-mothers invested for handling infants decreased. We also found that non-mothers invested more time in grooming to gain access to younger infants than older infants. Our results provide evidence that infants are social commodities for both mother and non-mother females. Mothers use infants for obtain grooming and non-mothers use grooming to gain access to infants. The current study implies a bidirectional and complex interchange pattern between grooming and infant handling to compensate for the dyadic grooming disparity in non-human primates.展开更多
Rhesus macaques(Macaca mulatta) and cynomolgus macaques(Macaca fascicularis) are frequently used in establishing animal models for human diseases. To determine the differences in gut microbiota between these species, ...Rhesus macaques(Macaca mulatta) and cynomolgus macaques(Macaca fascicularis) are frequently used in establishing animal models for human diseases. To determine the differences in gut microbiota between these species, rectal swabs from 20 rhesus macaques and 21 cynomolgus macaques were collected, and the microbial composition was examined by deep sequencing of the 16 S rR NA gene. We found that the rectal microbiota of cynomolgus macaques exhibited significantly higher alpha diversity than that of rhesus macaques, although the observed number of operational taxonomic units(OTUs) was almost the same. The dominant taxa at both the phylum and genus levels were similar between the two species, although the relative abundances of these dominant taxa were significantly different between them. Phylogenetic Investigation of Communities by Reconstruction of Unobserved States(PICRUSt) showed significant differences in the functional components between the microbiota of the two species, in particular the lipopolysaccharide(LPS) synthesis proteins. The above data indicated significant differences in microbial composition and function between these two closely related macaque species, which should be taken into consideration in the future selection of these animals for disease models.展开更多
In animal societies,some stressful events can lead to higher levels of physiological stress.Such stressors,like social rank,also predict an increased vulnerability to an array of diseases.However,the physiological rel...In animal societies,some stressful events can lead to higher levels of physiological stress.Such stressors,like social rank,also predict an increased vulnerability to an array of diseases.However,the physiological relationship between social rank and stress varies between different species,as well as within groups of a single species.For example,dominant individuals are more socially stressed at times,while at other times it is the subordinate ones who experience this stress.Together,these variations make it difficult to assess disease vulnerability as connected to social interactions.In order to learn more about how physiological rank relationships vary between groups of a single species,cortisol measurements from hair samples were used to evaluate the effects of dominance rank on long-term stress levels in despotic and less stringent female rhesus macaque hierarchal groups.In despotic groups,cortisol levels were found not to be correlated with social rank,but a negative correlation was found between social rank and cortisol levels in less stringent hierarchies.Low ranking monkeys in less stringent groups secreted elevated levels of cortisol compared to higher ranking animals.These data suggest that variations in the strictness of the dominance hierarchy are determining factors in rank related stress physiology.The further consideration of nonhuman primate social system diversity and the linear degree of their hierarchies may allow for the development of valid rank-related stress models that will help increase our understanding and guide the development of new therapeutics for diseases related to human socioeconomic status.展开更多
Northern pig-tailed macaques (NPMs, Macaca leonina) are susceptible to HIV-1 infection largely due to the loss of HIV-l-restricting factor TRIM5a. However, great impediments still exist in the persistent replication...Northern pig-tailed macaques (NPMs, Macaca leonina) are susceptible to HIV-1 infection largely due to the loss of HIV-l-restricting factor TRIM5a. However, great impediments still exist in the persistent replication of HIV-1 in vivo, suggesting some viral restriction factors are reserved in this host The APOBEC3 proteins have demonstrated a capacity to restrict HIV-1 replication, but their inhibitory effects in NPMs remain elusive. In this study, we cloned the NPM A3A-A3H genes, and determined by BLAST searching that their coding sequences (CDSs) showed 99% identity to the corresponding counterparts from rhesus and southern pig-tailed macaques. We further analyzed the anti-HIV-1 activities of the A3A-A3H genes, and found that A3G and A3F had the greatest anti-HIV-1 activity compared with that of other members. The results of this study indicate that A3G and A3F might play critical roles in limiting HIV-1 replication in NPMs in vivo. Furthermore, this research provides valuable information for the optimization of monkey models of HIV-1 infection.展开更多
Phylogenetic relationships within the sinica-group of macaques based on morphological,behavioral,and molecular characteristics have remained controversial.The Nepal population of Assam macaques(Macaca assamensis)(NPAM...Phylogenetic relationships within the sinica-group of macaques based on morphological,behavioral,and molecular characteristics have remained controversial.The Nepal population of Assam macaques(Macaca assamensis)(NPAM),the westernmost population of the species,is morphologically distinct but has never been used in phylogenetic analyses.Here,the phylogenetic relationship of NPAM with other congeners was tested using multiple mitochondrial and Ychromosomal loci.The divergence times and evolutionary genetic distances among macaques were also estimated.Results revealed two major mitochondrial DNA clades of macaques under the sinica-group:the first clade included M.thibetana,M.sinica,and eastern subspecies of Assam macaque(M.assamensis assamensis);the second clade included M.radiata together with species from the eastern and central Himalaya,namely,M.leucogenys,M.munzala,and NPAM.Among the second-clade species,NPAM was the first to diverge from the other members of the clade around 1.9 million years ago.Our results revealed that NPAM is phylogenetically distinct from the eastern Assam macaques and closer to other species and hence may represent a separate species.Because of its phylogenetic distinctiveness,isolated distribution,and small population size,the Nepal population of sinica-group macaques warrants detailed taxonomic revision and high conservation priority.展开更多
A China-U.S. joint research team has made new breakthroughs in developing nonhuman primate models for autism research. This does much to pave the way for possible drug discovery and gene therapy of the disorder. The r...A China-U.S. joint research team has made new breakthroughs in developing nonhuman primate models for autism research. This does much to pave the way for possible drug discovery and gene therapy of the disorder. The research was conducted by scientists from the Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology (SIAT) under the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Sun Yat-Sen University, and South China Agricultural University.展开更多
The northem pig-tailed macaque (NPM, Macaca leonina) has become a widely used animal model in biomedical research. In this study, we measured serum immunoglobulin IgG, IgM, IgA, complement C3, C4 and CRP levels in 3...The northem pig-tailed macaque (NPM, Macaca leonina) has become a widely used animal model in biomedical research. In this study, we measured serum immunoglobulin IgG, IgM, IgA, complement C3, C4 and CRP levels in 3-11 year old captive northem pig-tailed macaques using HITACHI 7600-20 automated chemistry analyzer in order to determine the influences of age and gender on these items. The results showed that serum IgA, IgM, C3 and C4 levels were not correlated with age (P〉0.05), while serum IgG levels increased progressively with age (r=0.202; P=0.045). Serum IgG, IgA, IgM and C3 levels were higher in females than in males (P〈0.05). Moreover, serum C3 concentration was both positively and strongly correlated with that of C4 (r=0.700; P〈0.0001). This study provides basic serum immunoglobulin and complement data of captive northem pig-tailed macaques, which may prove useful for future breeding efforts and biomedical research.展开更多
The complex and dynamic vaginal microbial ecosystem is critical to both health and disease of the host. Studies focusing on how vaginal microbiota influences HIV-1 infection may face limitations in selecting proper an...The complex and dynamic vaginal microbial ecosystem is critical to both health and disease of the host. Studies focusing on how vaginal microbiota influences HIV-1 infection may face limitations in selecting proper animal models. Given that northern pig-tailed macaques (Macaca leonina) are susceptible to HIV-1 infection, they may be an optimal animal model for elucidating the mechanisms by which vaginal microbiota contributes to resistance and susceptibility to HIV-1 infection. However, little is known about the composition and temporal variability of vaginal microbiota of the northern pig-tailed macaque. Here, we present a comprehensive catalog of the composition and temporal dynamics of vaginal microbiota of two healthy northern pig-tailed macaques over 19 weeks using 454-pyrosequencing of 16S rRNA genes. We found remarkably high proportions of a diverse array of anaerobic bacteria associated with bacterial vaginosis. Atopobium and Sneathia were dominant genera, and interestingly, we demonstrated the presence of Lactobacillus-dominated vaginal microbiota. Moreover, longitudinal analysis demonstrated that the temporal dynamics of the vaginal microbiota were considerably individualized. Finally, network analysis revealed that vaginal pH may influence the temporal dynamics of the vaginal microbiota, suggesting that inter-subject variability of vaginal bacterial communities could be mirrored in inter-subject variation in correlation profiles of species with each other and with vaginal pH over time. Our results suggest that the northern pig-tailed macaque could be an ideal animal model for prospective investigation of the mechanisms by which vaginal microbiota influence susceptibility and resistance to HIV-1 infection in the context of highly polymicrobial and Lactobacillus-dominated states.展开更多
Objective To develop a model of SHIV-KB9/Chinese origin rhesus (Ch Rh) macaques for vaccine research and to compare the pathogenesis of SHIV-KB9 in Ch Rh macaques with that reported in Indian rhesus (Ind Rh) macaq...Objective To develop a model of SHIV-KB9/Chinese origin rhesus (Ch Rh) macaques for vaccine research and to compare the pathogenesis of SHIV-KB9 in Ch Rh macaques with that reported in Indian rhesus (Ind Rh) macaques. Methods Seven mamu-A*01 negative Ch Rh macaques were inoculated intravenously with 1-10000 MID50 of SHIV-KB9. The monkeys were monitored for viral load, CD4, CDS, SHIV-specific antibody and virus genetic variation. The results were compared with those previously observed in Ind Rh macaques. Results As compared to that observed in Ind Rh macaques, SHIV-KB9 in Ch Rh macaques displayed three identical disease progression patterns. However, the primary pattern was not identical between the two subspecies. The level of plasma viremia differed in SHIV-KB9-infected Ch Rh macaques which exhibited different outcomes from those in Ind Rh macaques. Generally, the values of viral load and the maintenance of CD4^+ T cells were associated with humoral responses. Otherwise, the viral genetic distances (divergence, diversity) were larger in animals (M419, M425) with their CD4^+ T cells profoundly depleted. Conclusion The model of SHIV-KB9/Ch Rh macaques displays a relatively slow progression to AIDS compared with Ind Rh macaques, which may more accurately reflect the potential of candidate vaccines in humans.展开更多
Parasites can increase infection rates and pathogenicity in immunocompromised human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) patients. However, in vitro studies and epidemiological investigations also suggest that parasites mig...Parasites can increase infection rates and pathogenicity in immunocompromised human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) patients. However, in vitro studies and epidemiological investigations also suggest that parasites might escape immunocompromised hosts during HIV infection Due to the lack of direct evidence from animal experiments, the effects of immunocompromised hosts parasitic infections on remain unclear. Here we detected 14 different parasites in six northern pig-tailed macaques (NPMs) before or at the 50th week of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection by ELISA. The NPMs all carried parasites before viral injection. At the 50th week after viral injection, the individuals with negative results in parasitic detection (i.e., 08247 and 08287) were characterized as the Parasites Exit (PE) group, with the other individuals (i.e., 09203, 09211, 10205, and 10225) characterized as the Parasites Remain (PR) group. Compared with the PR group, the NPMs in the PE group showed higher viral loads, lower CD4+ T cells counts, and lower CD4/CD8 rates. Additionally, the PE group had higher immune activation and immune exhaustion of both CD4~ and CD8~ T cells. Pathological observation showed greater injury to the liver, cecum, colon, spleen, and mesenteric lymph nodes in the PE group This study showed more seriously compromised immunity in the PE group, strongly indicating that parasites might exit an immunocompromised host.展开更多
Aim: To examine the effect of sildenafil citrate on penile erection of male rhesus macaque. Methods: Twenty Macaca mulatta were divided into the sildenafil treated and the control groups of 10 animals each. The penile...Aim: To examine the effect of sildenafil citrate on penile erection of male rhesus macaque. Methods: Twenty Macaca mulatta were divided into the sildenafil treated and the control groups of 10 animals each. The penile size, the corpus cavernosal electromyogram (EMG) and the intra-corpus cavernosal pressure (ICP) were determined. Results: The diameter of penis and the ICP were significantly increased and the corpus cavernosal EMG significantly reduced in the sildenafil group. Conclusion: Sildenafil citrate increases the penile size and ICP and reduces the corpus cavernosal EMG in male rhesus macaque.展开更多
In this study, we analyzed diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) results of brain white matter in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) with four different parameter settings and found that the sequence A (b=1000 s/mm^2, spa...In this study, we analyzed diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) results of brain white matter in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) with four different parameter settings and found that the sequence A (b=1000 s/mm^2, spatial resolution=1.25 mm ×1.25 mm× 1.25 mm, numbers of direction=33, NSA=3) and B (b=800 s/mm^2, spatial resolution= 1.25 mm× 1.25 mm× 1.25 mm, numbers of direction=33, NSA=3) could accurately track coarse fibers. The fractional anisotropy (FA) derived from sequence C (b=1000s/mm^2, spatial resolution=0.55 mm×0.55 mm×2.5 mm, direction number=33, NSA=3) was too fuzzy to be used in tracking white matter fibers. By comparison, the high resolution and the FA with high contrast of gray matter and white matter derived from sequence D (b=800 s/mm^2, spatial resolution=1.0 mm×1.0 mm ×1.0 mm, numbers of direction=33, NSA=3) qualified in its application in tracking both thick and thin fibers, making it an optimal DTI setting for rhesus macaques.展开更多
Among mammals,mothers provide maternal care and protection starting from gestation and they ensure nutritional supply via lactation after birth(Clutton-Brock 1991).However,in social mammals,infants may also be cared f...Among mammals,mothers provide maternal care and protection starting from gestation and they ensure nutritional supply via lactation after birth(Clutton-Brock 1991).However,in social mammals,infants may also be cared for by a variety of other group members,such as fathers,siblings,a host of more distant relatives,and even unrelated individuals.Care by individuals other than the mother is known as allomaternal care(nonmaternal care)(Ishizuka 2020).Moreover,adoption of an orphaned infant is a special case of allomaternal care(Chaves et al.2020).展开更多
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2(SARS-CoV-2)caused the persistent coronavirus disease 2019(COVID-19)pandemic,which has resulted in millions of deaths worldwide and brought an enormous public health and ...Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2(SARS-CoV-2)caused the persistent coronavirus disease 2019(COVID-19)pandemic,which has resulted in millions of deaths worldwide and brought an enormous public health and global economic burden.The recurring global wave of infections has been exacerbated by growing variants of SARS-CoV-2.In this study,the virological characteristics of the original SARS-CoV-2 strain and its variants of concern(VOCs;including Alpha,Beta,and Delta)in vitro,as well as differential transcriptomic landscapes in multiple organs(lung,right ventricle,blood,cerebral cortex,and cerebellum)from the infected rhesus macaques,were elucidated.The original strain of SARS-CoV-2 caused a stronger innate immune response in host cells,and its VOCs markedly increased the levels of subgenomic RNAs,such as N,Orf9b,Orf6,and Orf7ab,which are known as the innate immune antagonists and the inhibitors of antiviral factors.Intriguingly,the original SARS-CoV-2 strain and Alpha variant induced larger alteration of RNA abundance in tissues of rhesus monkeys than Beta and Delta variants did.Moreover,a hyperinflammatory state and active immune response were shown in the right ventricles of rhesus monkeys by the up-regulation of inflammation-and immune-related RNAs.Furthermore,peripheral blood may mediate signaling transmission among tissues to coordinate the molecular changes in the infected individuals.Collectively,these data provide insights into the pathogenesis of COVID-19 at the early stage of infection by the original SARS-CoV-2 strain and its VOCs.展开更多
Neurodegenerative diseases(NDs)are a group of debilitating neurological disorders that primarily affect elderly populations and include Alzheimer's disease(AD),Parkinson's disease(PD),Huntington's disease(...Neurodegenerative diseases(NDs)are a group of debilitating neurological disorders that primarily affect elderly populations and include Alzheimer's disease(AD),Parkinson's disease(PD),Huntington's disease(HD),and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis(ALS).Currently,there are no therapies available that can delay,stop,or reverse the pathological progression of NDs in clinical settings.As the population ages,NDs are imposing a huge burden on public health systems and affected families.Animal models are important tools for preclinical investigations to understand disease pathogenesis and test potential treatments.While numerous rodent models of NDs have been developed to enhance our understanding of disease mechanisms,the limited success of translating findings from animal models to clinical practice suggests that there is still a need to bridge this translation gap.Old World nonhuman primates(NHPs),such as rhesus,cynomolgus,and vervet monkeys,are phylogenetically,physiologically,biochemically,and behaviorally most relevant to humans.This is particularly evident in the similarity of the structure and function of their central nervous systems,rendering such species uniquely valuable for neuroscience research.Recently,the development of several genetically modified NHP models of NDs has successfully recapitulated key pathologies and revealed novel mechanisms.This review focuses on the efficacy of NHPs in modeling NDs and the novel pathological insights gained,as well as the challenges associated with the generation of such models and the complexities involved in their subsequent analysis.展开更多
Leadership is a key issue in the study of collective behavior in social animals.Affiliation-leadership models predict that dyadic partner preferences based on grooming relationships or allianee formation positively af...Leadership is a key issue in the study of collective behavior in social animals.Affiliation-leadership models predict that dyadic partner preferences based on grooming relationships or allianee formation positively affect an in dividua I's decision to follow or support a con spec ific.In the case of many primate species,females without young infants are attracted to mother-infant dyads.However,the effects of mother-infant-female associations on affiliation-leadership models remain less clear.In free-rangi ng Tibeta n macaques Macaca thibetana,we used social network analysis to examine the importance of mother-inf a nt-adult female"social bridging eve nts as a predictor of who leads and who follows during group movement.Social bridging is a common behavior in Tibetan macaques and occurs whe n 2 adults,gen erally females,engage in coordinated in fa nt handling.Using eigenvector centrality coefficients of social bridging as a measure of social affiliation,we found that among lactating females,initiating bridging behavior with another female played a sign讦icant role in leadership success,with the assisting female following the mother during group movement.Among non lactati ng females,this was not the case.Our results in dicate that in fa nt attracti on can be a strong trigger in collective action and directing group movement in Tibetan macaques and provides benefits to mothers who require helpers and social support in order to ensure the safety of their infants.Our study provides new insights into the importance of the third-party effect in rethinking affiliation-leadership models in group-living animals.展开更多
It is currently widely accepted that immune activation in HIV-infected individuals leads to a severe loss of CD4+ T cells and the progression to AIDS. However, the underlying mechanism of this immune activation remai...It is currently widely accepted that immune activation in HIV-infected individuals leads to a severe loss of CD4+ T cells and the progression to AIDS. However, the underlying mechanism of this immune activation remains unclear. Experimental data suggest that the activation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) by plasma viremia may play a critical role in HIV-induced immune activation. In this study, we found that the level of immune activation was higher in the late phase of SIVmac239 infection compared with chronic infection, which suggests that immune activation might be related to disease progression in SIVmac239-infected non-human primate models. Our work also showed that chloroquine could effectively inhibit the activation of pDCs in vitro and in vivo. However, chloroquine treatment of SIVmac239-infected macaques had no significant influence on the Cellular composition of peripheral blood in these animals.展开更多
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (82021001 and 31825018 to Q.S., 32370658 to Y.M.,82001372 to X.Y.)National Key Research and Development Program of China (2022YFF0710901)+2 种基金National Science and Technology Innovation2030 Major Program (2021ZD0200900) to Q.S.Shanghai Pujiang Program (22PJ1407300)Shanghai Jiao Tong University 2030 Initiative (WH510363001-7) to Y.M。
文摘Understanding gene expression variations between species is pivotal for deciphering the evolutionary diversity in phenotypes. Rhesus macaques(Macaca mulatta, MMU)and crab-eating macaques(M. fascicularis, MFA) serve as crucial nonhuman primate biomedical models with different phenotypes. To date, however, large-scale comparative transcriptome research between these two species has not yet been fully explored. Here, we conducted systematic comparisons utilizing newly sequenced RNA-seq data from84 samples(41 MFA samples and 43 MMU samples)encompassing 14 common tissues. Our findings revealed a small fraction of genes(3.7%) with differential expression between the two species, as well as 36.5% of genes with tissue-specific expression in both macaques. Comparison of gene expression between macaques and humans indicated that 22.6% of orthologous genes displayed differential expression in at least two tissues. Moreover,19.41% of genes that overlapped with macaque-specific structural variants showed differential expression between humans and macaques. Of these, the FAM220A gene exhibited elevated expression in humans compared to macaques due to lineage-specific duplication. In summary,this study presents a large-scale transcriptomic comparison between MMU and MFA and between macaques and humans. The discovery of gene expression variations not only enhances the biomedical utility of macaque models but also contributes to the wider field of primate genomics.
基金supported by the Major Project of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (82090051,81871442)Outstanding Member Project of Youth Innovation Promotion Association of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Y201930)。
文摘Quantification of behaviors in macaques provides crucial support for various scientific disciplines,including pharmacology,neuroscience,and ethology.Despite recent advancements in the analysis of macaque behavior,research on multi-label behavior detection in socially housed macaques,including consideration of interactions among them,remains scarce.Given the lack of relevant approaches and datasets,we developed the Behavior-Aware Relation Network(BARN)for multi-label behavior detection of socially housed macaques.Our approach models the relationship of behavioral similarity between macaques,guided by a behavior-aware module and novel behavior classifier,which is suitable for multi-label classification.We also constructed a behavior dataset of rhesus macaques using ordinary RGB cameras mounted outside their cages.The dataset included 65?913 labels for19 behaviors and 60?367 proposals,including identities and locations of the macaques.Experimental results showed that BARN significantly improved the baseline SlowFast network and outperformed existing relation networks.In conclusion,we successfully achieved multilabel behavior detection of socially housed macaques with both economic efficiency and high accuracy.
基金partly supported by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China(U1802284 81471620,81671627,81771770,81571606)+1 种基金13th Five-Year Key Scientific and Technological Program of China(2017ZX10304402-002-004,2017ZX10202102-001-005,2018ZX10301101-002-003,2018ZX10301406-003)Knowledge Innovation Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences(ZDRW-ZS-2016-4)
文摘Microbial translocation is a cause of systemic immune activation in HIV/SIV infection. In the present study, we found a lower CD8+ T cell activation level in Macaca leonina (northern pig-tailed macaques, NPMs) than in Macaca mulatta (Chinese rhesus macaques, ChRMs) during SIVmac239 infection. Furthermore, the levels of plasma LPS-binding protein and soluble CD14 in NPMs were lower than those in ChRMs. Compared with ChRMs, SIV-infected NPMs had lower Chiu scores, representing relatively normal intestinal mucosa. In addition, no obvious damage to the ileum or colon epithelial barrier was observed in either infected or uninfected NPMs, which differed to that found in ChRMs. Furthermore, no significant microbial translocation (Escherichia coli) was detected in the colon or ileum of infected or uninfected NPMs, which again differed to that observed in ChRMs. In conclusion, NPMs retained superior intestinal integrity and limited microbial translocation during SIV infection, which may contribute to their lower immune activation compared with ChRMs.
基金supported in part by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China(31772475 31672307+1 种基金31401981 31372215)
文摘In some non-human primates, infants function as a social tool that can bridge relationships among group members. Infants are a desired commodity for group members, and mothers control access to them. The biological market theory suggests that grooming is widespread and represents a commodity that can be exchanged for infant handling. As a limited resource, however, the extent to which infants are interchanged between mothers(females with an infant) and non-mothers(potential handlers,females without an infant) remains unclear. In this study, we collected behavioral data to investigate the relationship between grooming and infant handling in free-ranging Tibetan macaques(Macaca thibetana)at Mt. Huangshan, China. Our results showed that females with infants received more grooming than females without infants. After her infant was handled,mother females received more grooming than they did during daily grooming interactions. However, with the increasing number of infants within the social group, both the grooming that mothers received and the grooming that non-mothers invested for handling infants decreased. We also found that non-mothers invested more time in grooming to gain access to younger infants than older infants. Our results provide evidence that infants are social commodities for both mother and non-mother females. Mothers use infants for obtain grooming and non-mothers use grooming to gain access to infants. The current study implies a bidirectional and complex interchange pattern between grooming and infant handling to compensate for the dyadic grooming disparity in non-human primates.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(81571607)Beijing Natural Science Foundation(7162136)Ministry of Science and Technology(2017ZX10202102003005,2015BAI08B03)of China
文摘Rhesus macaques(Macaca mulatta) and cynomolgus macaques(Macaca fascicularis) are frequently used in establishing animal models for human diseases. To determine the differences in gut microbiota between these species, rectal swabs from 20 rhesus macaques and 21 cynomolgus macaques were collected, and the microbial composition was examined by deep sequencing of the 16 S rR NA gene. We found that the rectal microbiota of cynomolgus macaques exhibited significantly higher alpha diversity than that of rhesus macaques, although the observed number of operational taxonomic units(OTUs) was almost the same. The dominant taxa at both the phylum and genus levels were similar between the two species, although the relative abundances of these dominant taxa were significantly different between them. Phylogenetic Investigation of Communities by Reconstruction of Unobserved States(PICRUSt) showed significant differences in the functional components between the microbiota of the two species, in particular the lipopolysaccharide(LPS) synthesis proteins. The above data indicated significant differences in microbial composition and function between these two closely related macaque species, which should be taken into consideration in the future selection of these animals for disease models.
基金This study was funded by the National Science Foundation of China(NSFC 31271167,and 31070963)the 973 program(2007CB947703 and 2011CB707800)the Key Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences,China(KSCX2-EW-R-13)。
文摘In animal societies,some stressful events can lead to higher levels of physiological stress.Such stressors,like social rank,also predict an increased vulnerability to an array of diseases.However,the physiological relationship between social rank and stress varies between different species,as well as within groups of a single species.For example,dominant individuals are more socially stressed at times,while at other times it is the subordinate ones who experience this stress.Together,these variations make it difficult to assess disease vulnerability as connected to social interactions.In order to learn more about how physiological rank relationships vary between groups of a single species,cortisol measurements from hair samples were used to evaluate the effects of dominance rank on long-term stress levels in despotic and less stringent female rhesus macaque hierarchal groups.In despotic groups,cortisol levels were found not to be correlated with social rank,but a negative correlation was found between social rank and cortisol levels in less stringent hierarchies.Low ranking monkeys in less stringent groups secreted elevated levels of cortisol compared to higher ranking animals.These data suggest that variations in the strictness of the dominance hierarchy are determining factors in rank related stress physiology.The further consideration of nonhuman primate social system diversity and the linear degree of their hierarchies may allow for the development of valid rank-related stress models that will help increase our understanding and guide the development of new therapeutics for diseases related to human socioeconomic status.
基金supported by the National Special Science Research Program of China(2012CBA01305)National Natural Science Foundation of China(81172876+6 种基金814716208127325181571606U0832601)National Science and Technology Major Project(2014ZX10005-002-006)Knowledge Innovation Program of CAS(KJZD-EW-L10-02)Yunnan Applicative and Basic Research Program(2014FB181)
文摘Northern pig-tailed macaques (NPMs, Macaca leonina) are susceptible to HIV-1 infection largely due to the loss of HIV-l-restricting factor TRIM5a. However, great impediments still exist in the persistent replication of HIV-1 in vivo, suggesting some viral restriction factors are reserved in this host The APOBEC3 proteins have demonstrated a capacity to restrict HIV-1 replication, but their inhibitory effects in NPMs remain elusive. In this study, we cloned the NPM A3A-A3H genes, and determined by BLAST searching that their coding sequences (CDSs) showed 99% identity to the corresponding counterparts from rhesus and southern pig-tailed macaques. We further analyzed the anti-HIV-1 activities of the A3A-A3H genes, and found that A3G and A3F had the greatest anti-HIV-1 activity compared with that of other members. The results of this study indicate that A3G and A3F might play critical roles in limiting HIV-1 replication in NPMs in vivo. Furthermore, this research provides valuable information for the optimization of monkey models of HIV-1 infection.
基金This study was supported by the Chinese Academy of Sciences-World Academy of Sciences(CAS-TWAS)President’s PhD Fellowship Program to L.K.,Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program(2019QZKK0501)National Key Research and Development Plan(#2017YFC0505202)China.R.C.K.was supported in part by the Office of Research Infrastructure Programs(ORIP)of the National Institutes of Health through Grant Number P51OD010425 to the WaNPRC.L.K.was supported by the Rufford Small Grants(17666-1)of Rufford Foundation,UK partly for fieldworksWe thank the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation and Department of Forest and Soil Conservation of the Government of Nepal for research permission,and our field assistants for their support in the field.
文摘Phylogenetic relationships within the sinica-group of macaques based on morphological,behavioral,and molecular characteristics have remained controversial.The Nepal population of Assam macaques(Macaca assamensis)(NPAM),the westernmost population of the species,is morphologically distinct but has never been used in phylogenetic analyses.Here,the phylogenetic relationship of NPAM with other congeners was tested using multiple mitochondrial and Ychromosomal loci.The divergence times and evolutionary genetic distances among macaques were also estimated.Results revealed two major mitochondrial DNA clades of macaques under the sinica-group:the first clade included M.thibetana,M.sinica,and eastern subspecies of Assam macaque(M.assamensis assamensis);the second clade included M.radiata together with species from the eastern and central Himalaya,namely,M.leucogenys,M.munzala,and NPAM.Among the second-clade species,NPAM was the first to diverge from the other members of the clade around 1.9 million years ago.Our results revealed that NPAM is phylogenetically distinct from the eastern Assam macaques and closer to other species and hence may represent a separate species.Because of its phylogenetic distinctiveness,isolated distribution,and small population size,the Nepal population of sinica-group macaques warrants detailed taxonomic revision and high conservation priority.
文摘A China-U.S. joint research team has made new breakthroughs in developing nonhuman primate models for autism research. This does much to pave the way for possible drug discovery and gene therapy of the disorder. The research was conducted by scientists from the Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology (SIAT) under the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Sun Yat-Sen University, and South China Agricultural University.
基金Foundation items: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (81172876, U0832601, 81273251, U1202228) the National Special Science Research Program of China (2012CBA01305) the National Science and Technology Major Project (2013ZX10001-002, 2012ZX10001-007) and the Knowledge Innovation Program of CAS (KSCX2-EW-R-13).
文摘The northem pig-tailed macaque (NPM, Macaca leonina) has become a widely used animal model in biomedical research. In this study, we measured serum immunoglobulin IgG, IgM, IgA, complement C3, C4 and CRP levels in 3-11 year old captive northem pig-tailed macaques using HITACHI 7600-20 automated chemistry analyzer in order to determine the influences of age and gender on these items. The results showed that serum IgA, IgM, C3 and C4 levels were not correlated with age (P〉0.05), while serum IgG levels increased progressively with age (r=0.202; P=0.045). Serum IgG, IgA, IgM and C3 levels were higher in females than in males (P〈0.05). Moreover, serum C3 concentration was both positively and strongly correlated with that of C4 (r=0.700; P〈0.0001). This study provides basic serum immunoglobulin and complement data of captive northem pig-tailed macaques, which may prove useful for future breeding efforts and biomedical research.
基金supported in part by the Key Scientific and Technological Program of China(2012ZX10001-0072013ZX10001-002)+5 种基金the National Basic Research Program of China(2012CBA01305)the National Natural Science Foundation of China(8117287681273251U1202228)the Knowledge Innovation Program of CAS(KSCX2-EW-R-13KJZD-EW-L10-02)
文摘The complex and dynamic vaginal microbial ecosystem is critical to both health and disease of the host. Studies focusing on how vaginal microbiota influences HIV-1 infection may face limitations in selecting proper animal models. Given that northern pig-tailed macaques (Macaca leonina) are susceptible to HIV-1 infection, they may be an optimal animal model for elucidating the mechanisms by which vaginal microbiota contributes to resistance and susceptibility to HIV-1 infection. However, little is known about the composition and temporal variability of vaginal microbiota of the northern pig-tailed macaque. Here, we present a comprehensive catalog of the composition and temporal dynamics of vaginal microbiota of two healthy northern pig-tailed macaques over 19 weeks using 454-pyrosequencing of 16S rRNA genes. We found remarkably high proportions of a diverse array of anaerobic bacteria associated with bacterial vaginosis. Atopobium and Sneathia were dominant genera, and interestingly, we demonstrated the presence of Lactobacillus-dominated vaginal microbiota. Moreover, longitudinal analysis demonstrated that the temporal dynamics of the vaginal microbiota were considerably individualized. Finally, network analysis revealed that vaginal pH may influence the temporal dynamics of the vaginal microbiota, suggesting that inter-subject variability of vaginal bacterial communities could be mirrored in inter-subject variation in correlation profiles of species with each other and with vaginal pH over time. Our results suggest that the northern pig-tailed macaque could be an ideal animal model for prospective investigation of the mechanisms by which vaginal microbiota influence susceptibility and resistance to HIV-1 infection in the context of highly polymicrobial and Lactobacillus-dominated states.
文摘Objective To develop a model of SHIV-KB9/Chinese origin rhesus (Ch Rh) macaques for vaccine research and to compare the pathogenesis of SHIV-KB9 in Ch Rh macaques with that reported in Indian rhesus (Ind Rh) macaques. Methods Seven mamu-A*01 negative Ch Rh macaques were inoculated intravenously with 1-10000 MID50 of SHIV-KB9. The monkeys were monitored for viral load, CD4, CDS, SHIV-specific antibody and virus genetic variation. The results were compared with those previously observed in Ind Rh macaques. Results As compared to that observed in Ind Rh macaques, SHIV-KB9 in Ch Rh macaques displayed three identical disease progression patterns. However, the primary pattern was not identical between the two subspecies. The level of plasma viremia differed in SHIV-KB9-infected Ch Rh macaques which exhibited different outcomes from those in Ind Rh macaques. Generally, the values of viral load and the maintenance of CD4^+ T cells were associated with humoral responses. Otherwise, the viral genetic distances (divergence, diversity) were larger in animals (M419, M425) with their CD4^+ T cells profoundly depleted. Conclusion The model of SHIV-KB9/Ch Rh macaques displays a relatively slow progression to AIDS compared with Ind Rh macaques, which may more accurately reflect the potential of candidate vaccines in humans.
基金partly supported by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China(8147162081671627+7 种基金815716068160180881172876U0832601)the National Basic Research Program of China(2012CBA01305)the 13th Five-Year Key Scientific and Technological Program of China(2017ZX10304402-002-0042017ZX10202102-001-005)the National Key Research & Development(R&D)Plan(2016YFC1201000)
文摘Parasites can increase infection rates and pathogenicity in immunocompromised human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) patients. However, in vitro studies and epidemiological investigations also suggest that parasites might escape immunocompromised hosts during HIV infection Due to the lack of direct evidence from animal experiments, the effects of immunocompromised hosts parasitic infections on remain unclear. Here we detected 14 different parasites in six northern pig-tailed macaques (NPMs) before or at the 50th week of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection by ELISA. The NPMs all carried parasites before viral injection. At the 50th week after viral injection, the individuals with negative results in parasitic detection (i.e., 08247 and 08287) were characterized as the Parasites Exit (PE) group, with the other individuals (i.e., 09203, 09211, 10205, and 10225) characterized as the Parasites Remain (PR) group. Compared with the PR group, the NPMs in the PE group showed higher viral loads, lower CD4+ T cells counts, and lower CD4/CD8 rates. Additionally, the PE group had higher immune activation and immune exhaustion of both CD4~ and CD8~ T cells. Pathological observation showed greater injury to the liver, cecum, colon, spleen, and mesenteric lymph nodes in the PE group This study showed more seriously compromised immunity in the PE group, strongly indicating that parasites might exit an immunocompromised host.
文摘Aim: To examine the effect of sildenafil citrate on penile erection of male rhesus macaque. Methods: Twenty Macaca mulatta were divided into the sildenafil treated and the control groups of 10 animals each. The penile size, the corpus cavernosal electromyogram (EMG) and the intra-corpus cavernosal pressure (ICP) were determined. Results: The diameter of penis and the ICP were significantly increased and the corpus cavernosal EMG significantly reduced in the sildenafil group. Conclusion: Sildenafil citrate increases the penile size and ICP and reduces the corpus cavernosal EMG in male rhesus macaque.
基金Foundation items: This work was supported by the 973 Program (2012CBB25503, 2011CB707800),
文摘In this study, we analyzed diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) results of brain white matter in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) with four different parameter settings and found that the sequence A (b=1000 s/mm^2, spatial resolution=1.25 mm ×1.25 mm× 1.25 mm, numbers of direction=33, NSA=3) and B (b=800 s/mm^2, spatial resolution= 1.25 mm× 1.25 mm× 1.25 mm, numbers of direction=33, NSA=3) could accurately track coarse fibers. The fractional anisotropy (FA) derived from sequence C (b=1000s/mm^2, spatial resolution=0.55 mm×0.55 mm×2.5 mm, direction number=33, NSA=3) was too fuzzy to be used in tracking white matter fibers. By comparison, the high resolution and the FA with high contrast of gray matter and white matter derived from sequence D (b=800 s/mm^2, spatial resolution=1.0 mm×1.0 mm ×1.0 mm, numbers of direction=33, NSA=3) qualified in its application in tracking both thick and thin fibers, making it an optimal DTI setting for rhesus macaques.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.31472018,31672302).
文摘Among mammals,mothers provide maternal care and protection starting from gestation and they ensure nutritional supply via lactation after birth(Clutton-Brock 1991).However,in social mammals,infants may also be cared for by a variety of other group members,such as fathers,siblings,a host of more distant relatives,and even unrelated individuals.Care by individuals other than the mother is known as allomaternal care(nonmaternal care)(Ishizuka 2020).Moreover,adoption of an orphaned infant is a special case of allomaternal care(Chaves et al.2020).
基金supported by the National Key R&D Program of China(Grant No.2021YFC0863300)the Strategic Priority Research Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences(Grant No.XDB0490000)+6 种基金the CAMS Innovation Fund for Medical Sciences(Grant No.2021-I2M-1-024)the STI2030-Major Projects(Grant No.2021ZD0200900)the Foundation for Innovative Research Groups of the National Natural Science Foundation of China(Grant No.82221004)the National Natural Science Foundation of China(Grant Nos.32121001,32200460,and 32200460)the K.C.Wong Education Foundation(Grant No.GJTD-2019-08)the Shanghai Municipal Science and Technology Major Project,China(Grant No.2017SHZDZX01)the China National Postdoctoral Program for Innovative Talents(Grant No.BX2021291).
文摘Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2(SARS-CoV-2)caused the persistent coronavirus disease 2019(COVID-19)pandemic,which has resulted in millions of deaths worldwide and brought an enormous public health and global economic burden.The recurring global wave of infections has been exacerbated by growing variants of SARS-CoV-2.In this study,the virological characteristics of the original SARS-CoV-2 strain and its variants of concern(VOCs;including Alpha,Beta,and Delta)in vitro,as well as differential transcriptomic landscapes in multiple organs(lung,right ventricle,blood,cerebral cortex,and cerebellum)from the infected rhesus macaques,were elucidated.The original strain of SARS-CoV-2 caused a stronger innate immune response in host cells,and its VOCs markedly increased the levels of subgenomic RNAs,such as N,Orf9b,Orf6,and Orf7ab,which are known as the innate immune antagonists and the inhibitors of antiviral factors.Intriguingly,the original SARS-CoV-2 strain and Alpha variant induced larger alteration of RNA abundance in tissues of rhesus monkeys than Beta and Delta variants did.Moreover,a hyperinflammatory state and active immune response were shown in the right ventricles of rhesus monkeys by the up-regulation of inflammation-and immune-related RNAs.Furthermore,peripheral blood may mediate signaling transmission among tissues to coordinate the molecular changes in the infected individuals.Collectively,these data provide insights into the pathogenesis of COVID-19 at the early stage of infection by the original SARS-CoV-2 strain and its VOCs.
基金supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2021YFF0702201)National Natural Science Foundation of China (81873736,31872779,81830032)+2 种基金Guangzhou Key Research Program on Brain Science (202007030008)Department of Science and Technology of Guangdong Province (2021ZT09Y007,2020B121201006,2018B030337001,2021A1515012526)Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province (2021A1515012526,2022A1515012651)。
文摘Neurodegenerative diseases(NDs)are a group of debilitating neurological disorders that primarily affect elderly populations and include Alzheimer's disease(AD),Parkinson's disease(PD),Huntington's disease(HD),and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis(ALS).Currently,there are no therapies available that can delay,stop,or reverse the pathological progression of NDs in clinical settings.As the population ages,NDs are imposing a huge burden on public health systems and affected families.Animal models are important tools for preclinical investigations to understand disease pathogenesis and test potential treatments.While numerous rodent models of NDs have been developed to enhance our understanding of disease mechanisms,the limited success of translating findings from animal models to clinical practice suggests that there is still a need to bridge this translation gap.Old World nonhuman primates(NHPs),such as rhesus,cynomolgus,and vervet monkeys,are phylogenetically,physiologically,biochemically,and behaviorally most relevant to humans.This is particularly evident in the similarity of the structure and function of their central nervous systems,rendering such species uniquely valuable for neuroscience research.Recently,the development of several genetically modified NHP models of NDs has successfully recapitulated key pathologies and revealed novel mechanisms.This review focuses on the efficacy of NHPs in modeling NDs and the novel pathological insights gained,as well as the challenges associated with the generation of such models and the complexities involved in their subsequent analysis.
基金This work was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of China(Grant No.31801983,31971404,31772475,31372215)the Initial Foundation of Doctoral Scientific Research(Y040418135)the Program of Outstanding Young Teachers Training(Z010139011)in Anhui University,and China Scholarship Council.R.C.K.'s effort was supported in part by the Office of Research Infrastructure Programs(ORIP)of the National Institutes of Health(NIH)through Grant Number P5IODO 10425 to the Washington National Primate Research Center.
文摘Leadership is a key issue in the study of collective behavior in social animals.Affiliation-leadership models predict that dyadic partner preferences based on grooming relationships or allianee formation positively affect an in dividua I's decision to follow or support a con spec ific.In the case of many primate species,females without young infants are attracted to mother-infant dyads.However,the effects of mother-infant-female associations on affiliation-leadership models remain less clear.In free-rangi ng Tibeta n macaques Macaca thibetana,we used social network analysis to examine the importance of mother-inf a nt-adult female"social bridging eve nts as a predictor of who leads and who follows during group movement.Social bridging is a common behavior in Tibetan macaques and occurs whe n 2 adults,gen erally females,engage in coordinated in fa nt handling.Using eigenvector centrality coefficients of social bridging as a measure of social affiliation,we found that among lactating females,initiating bridging behavior with another female played a sign讦icant role in leadership success,with the assisting female following the mother during group movement.Among non lactati ng females,this was not the case.Our results in dicate that in fa nt attracti on can be a strong trigger in collective action and directing group movement in Tibetan macaques and provides benefits to mothers who require helpers and social support in order to ensure the safety of their infants.Our study provides new insights into the importance of the third-party effect in rethinking affiliation-leadership models in group-living animals.
基金ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported in part by grants from the National Basic Research Program of China (2009CB522306 and 2012CBA01305), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (30872317, 30800113, U0832601 and 81172876), the Knowledge Innovation Program of CAS (KSCX1-YW-10 and KSCX2-EW-R-13), the Key Scientific and Technological Program of China (2009ZX09501-029, 2012ZX10001-006 and 2012ZX10001-007) and Yunnan province (2010GA001) and the 'Western Light' Projects of the CAS. The funding organizations had no role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
文摘It is currently widely accepted that immune activation in HIV-infected individuals leads to a severe loss of CD4+ T cells and the progression to AIDS. However, the underlying mechanism of this immune activation remains unclear. Experimental data suggest that the activation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) by plasma viremia may play a critical role in HIV-induced immune activation. In this study, we found that the level of immune activation was higher in the late phase of SIVmac239 infection compared with chronic infection, which suggests that immune activation might be related to disease progression in SIVmac239-infected non-human primate models. Our work also showed that chloroquine could effectively inhibit the activation of pDCs in vitro and in vivo. However, chloroquine treatment of SIVmac239-infected macaques had no significant influence on the Cellular composition of peripheral blood in these animals.