Significance-based optimization of processing parameters for thin-walled aluminum alloy tube NC bending with small bending radius

Thin-walled aluminum alloy tube numerical control （NC） bending with small bending radius is a complex process with multi-factor coupling effects and multi-die constraints. A significance-based optimization method of the parameters was proposed based on the finite element （FE） simulation, and the significance analysis of the processing parameters on the forming quality in terms of the maximum wall thinning ratio and the maximum cross section distortion degree was implemented using the fractional factorial design. The optimum value of the significant parameter, the clearance between the tube and the wiper die, was obtained, and the values of the other parameters, including the friction coefficients and the clearances between the tube and the dies, the mandrel extension length and the boost velocity were estimated. The results are applied to aluminum alloy tube NC bending d50 mm×1 mm×75 mm and d70 mm×1.5 mm×105 mm （initial tube outside diameter D0 × initial tube wall thickness t0 × bending radius R）, and qualified tubes are produced.

Cross-sectional distortion behaviors of thin-walled rectangular tube in rotary-draw bending process

The cross-sectional distortion usually appears during rotary-draw bending process of thin-walled rectangular tube with small bending radius.To study the cross-sectional distortion of the tube,a three-dimensional finite-element model of the process was developed based on ABAQUS/Explicit code and its reliability was validated by experiment.Then,the cross-sectional distortion behaviors of the tube were investigated.The results show that a zone of larger circumferential stress appears on the tube when bending angle reaches 30°.And in the larger circumferential stress zone,the sagging phenomenon is produced obviously.The maximum cross-sectional distortion is located in the larger circumferential stress zone and the angle between the plane of maximum cross-sectional distortion and the bending reference plane is about 50°.The position of the maximum cross-sectional distortion keeps almost unchanged with the variation of the clearances between dies and tube.

Wrinkling behavior of magnesium alloy tube in warm hydroforming

In tube hydroforming with axial feeding,under the effect of coupled internal pressure and axial stress,wrinkles often occur and affect the forming results.Wrinkling behavior of an AZ31B magnesium alloy tube was experimentally investigated with different loading paths at different temperatures.Features of wrinkles,including shape,radius and width,were acquired from the experiments,as well as the thickness distribution.Numerical simulations were carried out to reveal the stress state during warm hydroforming,and then the strain history of material at the top and bottom of the wrinkles were analyzed according to the stress tracks and yielding ellipse.Finally,effects of loading paths on expansion ratio limit of warm hydroforming were analyzed.It is verified that at a certain temperature,expansion ratio limit can be increased obviously by applying a proper loading path and realizing enough axial feeding.

Combined stress waves with phase transition in thin-walled tubes

The incremental constitutive relation and governing equations with combined stresses for phase transition wave propagation in a thin-walled tube are established based on the phase transition criterion considering both the hydrostatic pressure and the deviatoric stress. It is found that the centers of the initial and subsequent phase transition ellipses are shifted along the sigma-axis in the sigma tau-plane due to the tension-compression asymmetry induced by the hydrostatic pressure. The wave solution offers the 'fast' and 'slow' phase transition waves under combined longitudinal and torsional stresses in the phase transition region. The results show some new stress paths and wave structures in a thin-walled tube with phase transition, differing from those of conventional elastic-plastic materials.

Experimental and numerical assessment of energy absorption capacity of thin-walled Al 5083 tube produced by PTCAP process

The energy absorption capacity of the Al5083 thin-walled tube produced by parallel tubular angular pressing(PTCAP) process was evaluated. Also, microstructure, mechanical properties, and anisotropy coefficients were studied in the peripheral and axial directions. Results showed that values of energy absorption decreased with processing pass increasing and the values for the unprocessed, first and second passes were obtained to be 167, 161.4 and 160.7 J, respectively. The differences between the simulation results for the energy absorption values and their experimental values for the unprocessed, the first and the second PTCAP passes samples are about 5%, 10%, and 13%, respectively. The energy absorption capacity was related to the anisotropy coefficient and microstructure. The results demonstrated that grain refinement occurred and ultimate tensile strength(UTS) and microhardness after the first and second PTCAP passes were enhanced, while the increase rate in the first pass was much severer. Also, by applying PTCAP, the deformation modes were altered, such that the deformation mode of the annealed tube was quite symmetrical and circular while for the first and second passes there have been triple and double lobes diamond. The results of the numerical simulation for the deformation mode of the annealed and PTCAPed tubes were consistent with the experimental results. The deformation mode of tubes is dependent on their mechanical properties and variation of the mechanical properties during PTCAP process.

Microstructure and performance of biodegradable magnesium alloy tubes fabricated by local-heating-assisted dieless drawing

Magnesium(Mg)alloy stents are expected to be the next generation of stents because of good biocompatibility and biodegradability.Compared with cold drawing,dieless drawing with local heating is an effective method for manufacturing the Mg alloy microtubes since a large reduction in area can be achieved in a single pass.However,the microstructure and properties of dieless drawn tubes have not been clarified,leading to the problems in practical application of dieless drawn tubes.In this study,the microstructure and performance of dieless drawn tubes are clarified.The results show that temperature and speed in the dieless drawing process are two factors in determining the grain size of dieless drawn tubes since decreasing the temperature or increasing the speed promotes the generation of fine-grained microstructure.Twins are also generated during the dieless drawing process,which 1)disintegrates grains leading to refinement and 2)causes Hall-Petch law effect on dieless drawn tubes.Tensile tests show that grain size is the main factor in determining the mechanical properties of dieless drawn tubes,namely,0.2%proof stress 135-180MPa,ultimate tensile strength(UTS)200-250MPa,and elongation 8-12%.In 0.9 wt%NaCl solution,localized corrosion is the key factor in initiating the corrosion of dieless drawn tubes,but refined grains and fewer twins can alleviate local corrosion.These results imply that dieless drawn tubes are promising in the clinical application of Mg alloy stents for cardiovascular disease.

Warm hydroforming of magnesium alloy tube with large expansion ratio

Process of warm tube hydroforming was experimentally investigated for forming an AZ31B magnesium alloy tubular part with a large expansion ratio. Effects of temperature on the mechanical properties and formability were studied by uniaxial tensile test and hydraulic bulge test. Total elongation increases with temperature up to 250℃, but uniform elongation and maximum expansion ratio get the highest value at 175℃. Different axial feeding amounts were applied in experiments to determine the reasonable loading path. A preform with useful wrinkles was then realized and the tubular part with an expansion ratio of 50% was formed. Finally, mechanical condition to produce useful wrinkles is deduced and the result illustrates that useful wrinkles are easier to be obtained for tube with higher strain hardening coefficient value and tubular part with smaller expansion ratio.

Effect of microstructure on outer surface roughening of magnesium alloy tubes in die-less mandrel drawing

The crystal orientation and outer surface roughening of magnesium alloy tubes were evaluated to clarify the effect of the mandrel on the microstructure and outer surface roughness in die-less mandrel drawing. Locally heated ZM21 tubes with an outer diameter of 6.0 mm and an inner diameter of 3.8 mm were drawn with and without a mandrel. The outer surface roughness and crystal orientation were evaluated in the same measurement area. The results indicated that the outer surface becomes rougher in the die-less mandrel drawing than in die-less drawing for a given outer circumferential strain. The outer surface roughness developed when there was large difference in the pyramidal slip system Schmid factor. Therefore, the slip deformation of the pyramidal slip system seems to be mainly responsible for the outer surface roughening in the die-less mandrel drawing. Furthermore, the crystal grain with the {2110} crystal plane vertical to the normal direction of outer surface had a larger Schmid factor than the other crystal grains. The large number of crystal grains with the {2110} crystal plane in the die-less mandrel drawing is one of the reasons that the outer surface roughness develops more in the die-less mandrel drawing than in die-less drawing for a given outer circumferential strain. These results will contribute significantly to the development of fabrication process of the microtube with high surface quality, which prevents rapid corrosion of biomedical applications.

Microstructure and mechanical properties of BFe10 cupronickel alloy tubes fabricated by a horizontal continuous casting with heating-cooling combined mold technology

A new horizontal continuous casting method with heating-cooling combined mold （HCCM） technology was explored for fabri- cating high-quality thin-wall cupronickel alloy tubes used for heat exchange pipes. The microstructure and mechanical properties of BFe 10 cupronickel alloy tubes fabricated by HCCM and traditional continuous casting （cooling mold casting） were comparatively investigated. The results show that the tube fabricated by HCCM has smooth internal and external surfaces without any defects, and its internal and external surface roughnesses are 0.64 μm and 0.85 μm, respectively. The tube could be used for subsequent cold processing without other treatments such as surface planning, milling and acid-washing. This indicates that HCCM can effectively reduce the process flow and improve the pro- duction efficiency of a BFel0 cupronickel alloy tube. The tube has columnar grains along its axial direction with a major casting texture of {012}〈 621 〉. Compared with cooling mold casting （6 = 36.5%）, HCCM can improve elongation （3 = 46.3%） by 10% with a slight loss of strength, which indicates that HCCM remarkably improves the cold extension performance of a BFe 10 cupronickel alloy tube.

Effects of Ca addition on tensile properties and microstructures of hot-extruded AZ91 alloy tube

As-cast AZ91+XCa (X=0, 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, mass fraction) magnesium alloys were extruded into tube at 380℃with an extrusion ratio of 6:1. The tensile properties and microstructures of extruded AZ91+XCa alloy tubes were investigated. The microstructural observation indicates that Ca can obviously refine bothα-Mg grains and Mg17Al12 phase of AZ91 magnesium alloy. XRD analysis shows that the microstructure of AZ91+0.5Ca alloy consists ofα-Mg solid solution and Mg17Al12 phase, while AZ91+1.5Ca alloy contains additionally Al2Ca phase. The tensile experimental results show that for the AZ91 alloy, the addition of Ca has little influence on the ambient temperature tensile properties but can improve the elevated temperature tensile properties. For the extruded AZ91+XCa alloys, the elevated temperature tensile strength decreases, and elongation increases with increasing the Ca content. The improvement in elevated temperature tensile strength of the alloy can be attributed to the presence of a Ca-containing phase, which can increase the microstructural stability of the alloy at elevated temperature.

大规格薄壁镁合金无缝管二辊斜轧穿孔的数值模拟

目前,采用三辊斜轧穿孔的大规格薄壁镁合金管容易出现尾三角。因此,本文提出采用二辊锥辊穿制坯料直径为110 mm的大规格AZ31镁合金薄壁无缝管的方法。分析了二辊和三辊斜轧穿孔的原理,根据镁合金材料的特点,制定了相应的变形工艺参数,并采用Deform-3D有限元软件对整个过程进行了数值模拟。分析了等效应变、轧制速度、等效应力等结果。模拟结果表明,管形均匀,尾部截面圆整。

游动芯头拉拔孔型参数对AZ31镁合金管材成形性的影响研究

为了探索AZ31镁合金薄壁管游动芯头拉拔成形与传统工艺之间的差异,使用ABAQUS软件对其进行了游动芯头拉拔过程的模拟,并比较研究了模具与芯头锥角配合、定径带长度对拉拔管材成形性的影响。研究结果表明:在拉拔AZ31镁合金管材时,选择合适的模具角度不仅可以降低残余应力,还可以提高尺寸精度;同时,模具定径段长度对管材变形均匀性和残余应力产生较大影响。

Forming limits under multi-index constraints in NC bending of aluminum alloy thin-walled tubes with large diameters

With increasing diameters of aluminum alloy thin-walled tubes (AATTs), the tube forming limits, i.e. the minimum bending factors, and their predictions under multi-index constraints including wrinkling, thinning and flattening have been being a key problem to be urgently solved for improving tube forming potential in numerical control (NC) bending processes of AATTs with large diameters. Thus in this paper, a search algorithm of the forming limits is put forward based on a 3D elastic-plastic finite element (FE) model and a wrinkling energy prediction model for the bending processes under axial compression loading (ACL) or not. This algorithm enables to be considered the effects of process parameter combinations including die, friction parameters on the multi-indices. Based on this algorithm, the forming limits of the different size tubes are obtained, and the roles of the process parameter combinations in enabling the limit bending processes are also revealed. The followings are found: the first, within the appropriate ranges of friction and clearances between the different dies and the tubes enabling the bending processes with smaller bending factors, the ACL enables the tube limit bending processes after a decrease of the mandrel ball thickness and diameters; then, without considering the effects of the tube geometry sizes on the tube constitutive equations, the forming limits will be decided by the limit thinning values for the tubes with diameters smaller than 80 mm, while the wrinkling for the tubes with diameters no less than 80 mm. The forming limits obtained from this algorithm are smaller than the analytical results, and reduced by 57.39%; the last, the roles of the process parameter combinations in enabling the limit bending processes are verified by experimental results.

Mechanical property and formability of AZ31B extruded tube at elevated temperature

The mechanical properties of AZ31B magnesium alloy tube were tested by ring hoop tension test at different temperatures. The formability for tube hydroforming was also evaluated by flee-expansion test.The results show that there exists a quick decrease of total elongation along hoop direction at the temperature range of 150-230℃,which is quite different from that along axial direction.The total elongation along hoop direction of welded tube is quite close to that of seamless tube until 230℃is reached.At higher temperature,the total elongation for seamless tube begins to increase while the value for welded tube continues to decrease. The maximum free expansion ratio of seamless tube increases considerably as temperature increases and reaches the maximum value of 30%at 170℃,then decreases quickly at higher temperature.

Formability evaluation of AZ31B extruded tube for hydroforming process

Hydroforming of magnesium and aluminum alloy tube at elevated temperature is becoming a very promising method to manufacture light-weight hollow components.Uniaxial tensile test and hydrobulging test were used to investigate the formability of AZ31B magnesium tube at different temperatures.The tube was manufactured by porthole die extrusion.Results show that as temperature increase,the tension formability along the extrusion direction measured by tensile test increases significantly,whereas the maximum hydrobulging ratio measured by hydrobulging test does not change accordingly.This anisotropy character of the tube,i.e.,different properties in axial direction and hoop direction,is mainly dependant on the extrusion process.In addition,there exists several weld lines along the extrusion direction.These weld lines will become the weakest positions when formed at elevated temperature,and will consequently decrease the formability of the tube during hydroforming process.

AZ31镁合金管件电磁吸引式成形动态特性研究

镁合金作为目前工程应用中最轻质的金属结构材料之一,因其多种优良特性而广泛应用于轻量化设备制造中。然而,镁合金在室温下的塑性形变能力较差,传统加工工艺难以满足镁合金工件成形制造的需求。利用电磁力驱动金属材料发生高速变形的电磁成形技术可有效解决上述问题,其极高的应变速率能显著改善镁合金材料的成形性能,提升室温下的成形极限。然而,目前关于镁合金电磁成形的研究,大多使用驱动片与加热装置辅助,其工装较为复杂,且工件变形质量难以保证;辅助装置的添加也难以用于微小管件的成形。因此该文提出室温下的镁合金管件电磁吸引式成形方法,通过建立有限元仿真模型,在理论上验证了其成形方案的可行性;进一步分析了放电参数、电磁参数对管件运动状态的调控规律,阐明管件变形过程中工件的动态特性。上述结论可为线圈结构设计和放电参数设计提供指导。

辊速对AZ61B镁合金管材纵连轧成形性的影响

基于Abaqus软件建立了AZ61B镁合金管材连轧有限元模型,模拟和分析了辊速对管材成形性的影响,通过试验验证了模型可靠性。结果表明:在稳定轧制阶段,管材周向壁厚随辊速增加而减薄,且平均壁厚均匀性改善,纵向伸长率与辊速呈正相关,辊速由2.46 r/s增加到2.90 r/s时,周向平均壁厚由5.762 mm减小到5.224 mm,耳子由6.453 mm减小到5.856 mm,纵向伸长率由41.33%增加到51.86%。

AZ91镁合金管转角扩径分流挤压成形工艺分析及模具设计

根据目前扩径挤压技术存在的问题,提出了一种新的镁合金管转角扩径分流挤压技术。扩径挤压的管材外径大于挤压坯料的外径,而传统的挤压管材外径小于挤压坯料外径。扩径分流挤压方法可实现小直径坯料挤压大口径管材,可降低挤压力以实现小吨位设备挤压大口径管材。还可利用转角剪切变形增加预焊合金属变形量,提高镁合金再结晶程度,提高生产效率,节约成本。设计了转角扩径分流挤压模具,并通过有限元法分析了AZ91镁合金扩径分流挤压成形过程。结果表明,整个挤压过程中金属流动顺畅,无折叠和充填不满等缺陷;通过控制工艺参数可控制温升在合理范围内,经过转角变形后等效应变达9.0左右,焊合室内焊合压力可达230 MPa,完全满足焊合要求;在所研究的参数范围内,焊合压力随着挤压速度的增加先增加后减小,随着挤压温度的增加焊合压力逐渐减小。

Geometry-dependent springback behaviors of thin-walled tube upon cold bending

As one kind of key lightweight components with enormous quantities and diversities, the bent tubular parts have attracted in- creasing applications in aerospace, automobile, etc. Thus, how the inevitable springback behaves under different bending specifications should be fully addressed to efficiently achieve the precision forming of various bent tubes. Taking the medium strength thin-walled 6061-T4 Al-alloy tube as the objective, via the deformation theory of plasticity, explicit/implicit FE method and experimental approaches, we explored and clarified the nonlinear springback rules of the tubes and corresponding mechanisms in universal rotary draw bending regarding angular springback and radius growth by deliberately changing the tube diameter D and wall thickness t. The geometry dependent springback behaviors of thin-walled tube upon cold bending are thus revealed: 1) With the increasing of D, the tangent tensile strain increases and the proportional coefficient decreases, which causes the angular springback to decrease, while the radius springback increases due to the larger bending radius. 2) With the increasing of t, the tangent tensile strain decreases and the proportional coefficient increases, resulting in the increase of both angular springback and radius springback. 3) Under the same D/t, the angular springback varies little, while the radius springback increases with the larger diameter D. 4) The D/t can be used as a reasonable nondimensional index to evaluate the springback angle; as to the radius growth, the individual effects of the D and t should be considered. 5) The verification of the above results was conducted by experiments and analytical analysis.

挤压变形对Mg-5.0Y-7.0Gd-1.3Nd-0.5Zr合金组织和性能的影响

对Mg-5.0Y-7.0Gd-1.3Nd-0.5Zr（EW75M）合金在不同条件下挤压变形后的组织和性能进行测试。结果表明：随着挤压比的增大,合金的强度和塑性均大幅度提高,当挤压比增大到20以后,晶粒细化对合金的强化效果趋于稳定;当挤压筒温度由400℃升高到450℃时,合金强度和伸长率的降幅均在5%以内,挤压筒温度在400℃～450℃变化时对合金挤压变形后的性能影响较小;将合金均匀化处理（535℃、24h）后直接进行挤压变形（挤压比20,挤压筒温度400℃,挤压速度1～2m/min）,其极限抗拉强度、屈服强度和伸长率分别达到335MPa、240MPa和16.5%。