Intelligent Fractional-Order Controller for SMES Systems in Renewable Energy-Based Microgrid

An autonomous microgrid that runs on renewable energy sources is presented in this article.It has a supercon-ducting magnetic energy storage(SMES)device,wind energy-producing devices,and an energy storage battery.However,because such microgrids are nonlinear and the energy they create varies with time,controlling and managing the energy inside them is a difficult issue.Fractional-order proportional integral(FOPI)controller is recommended for the current research to enhance a standalone microgrid’s energy management and performance.The suggested dedicated control for the SMES comprises two loops:the outer loop,which uses the FOPI to regulate the DC-link voltage,and the inner loop,responsible for regulating the SMES current,is constructed using the intelligent FOPI(iFOPI).The FOPI+iFOPI parameters are best developed using the dandelion optimizer(DO)approach to achieve the optimum performance.The suggested FOPI+iFOPI controller’s performance is contrasted with a conventional PI controller for variations in wind speed and microgrid load.The optimal FOPI+iFOPI controller manages the voltage and frequency of the load.The behavior of the microgrid as a reaction to step changes in load and wind speed was measured using the proposed controller.MATLAB simulations were used to evaluate the recommended system’s performance.The results of the simulations showed that throughout all interruptions,the recommended microgrid provided the load with AC power with a constant amplitude and frequency.In addition,the required load demand was accurately reduced.Furthermore,the microgrid functioned incredibly well despite SMES and varying wind speeds.Results obtained under identical conditions were compared with and without the best FOPI+iFOPI controller.When utilizing the optimal FOPI+iFOPI controller with SMES,it was found that the microgrid performed better than the microgrid without SMES.

A novel transient rotor current control scheme of a doubly-fed induction generator equipped with superconducting magnetic energy storage for voltage and frequency support

A novel transient rotor current control scheme is proposed in this paper for a doubly-fed induction generator（DFIG）equipped with a superconducting magnetic energy storage（SMES） device to enhance its transient voltage and frequency support capacity during grid faults. The SMES connected to the DC-link capacitor of the DFIG is controlled to regulate the transient dc-link voltage so that the whole capacity of the grid side converter（GSC） is dedicated to injecting reactive power to the grid for the transient voltage support. However, the rotor-side converter（RSC） has different control tasks for different periods of the grid fault. Firstly, for Period I, the RSC injects the demagnetizing current to ensure the controllability of the rotor voltage. Then, since the dc stator flux degenerates rapidly in Period II, the required demagnetizing current is low in Period II and the RSC uses the spare capacity to additionally generate the reactive（priority） and active current so that the transient voltage capability is corroborated and the DFIG also positively responds to the system frequency dynamic at the earliest time. Finally, a small amount of demagnetizing current is provided after the fault clearance. Most of the RSC capacity is used to inject the active current to further support the frequency recovery of the system. Simulations are carried out on a simple power system with a wind farm. Comparisons with other commonly used control methods are performed to validate the proposed control method.

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Integrated Current-source DC/DC Converter for Voltage Stabilization and Power Regulation in DFIG-based DC Power Systems

Unpredictable power fluctuation and fault ridethrough capability attract increased attention as two uncertain major factors in doubly-fed induction generators(DFIGs)integrated DC power system.Present solutions usually require complicated cooperation comprising multiple modules of energy storage,current control,and voltage stabilizer.To overcome the drawbacks of existing solutions,this paper proposes a superconducting magnetic energy storage(SMES)integrated currentsource DC/DC converter(CSDC).It is mainly composed of a current-source back-to-back converter,and the SMES is tactfully embedded in series with the intermediate DC link.The proposed SMES-CSDC is installed in front of the DC-DFIG to carry out its dual abilities of load voltage stabilization under multifarious transient disturbances and power regulation under wind speed variations.Compared with the existing DC protection devices,the SMES-CSDC is designed on the basis of unique current-type energy storage.It has the advantages of fast response,extensive compensation range,concise hardware structure,and straightforward control strategy.The feasibility of the SMESCSDC is implemented via a scaled-down experiment,and its effectiveness for DC-DFIG protection is verified by a large-scale DC power system simulation.

High Index SMES Device for Gravitomagnetic Field Generation

A method is described for creating a measurable unbalanced gravitational acceleration using a gravitomagnetic field surrounding a superconducting toroid as described by Forward (1962). An experimental Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) toroid configuration of wound superconducting nanowire is proposed to create a measurable acceleration field along the axis of symmetry, providing experimental confirmation of the additive nature of a Lense-Thirring derived gravitomagnetic field. In the present paper, gravitational coupling enhancement of this effect is explored using a high index or high permittivity material, as predicted by Sarfatti (2020) using his modification to Einstein’s General Relativity Field Equations for gravitational coupling in matter.

Energy-saving Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage(SMES)Based Interline DC Dynamic Voltage Restorer

The fast-response feature from a superconducting magnetic energy storage(SMES)device is favored for suppressing instantaneous voltage and power fluctuations,but the SMES coil is much more expensive than a conventional battery energy storage device.In order to improve the energy utilization rate and reduce the energy storage cost under multiple-line power distribution conditions,this paper investigates a new interline DC dynamic voltage restorer(IDC-DVR)scheme with one SMES coil shared among multiple compensating circuits.In this new concept,an improved current-voltage(I/V)chopper assembly,which has a series of input/output power ports,is introduced to connect the single SMES coil with multiple power lines,and thereby satisfy the independent energy exchange requirements of any line to be compensated.Specifically,if two or more power lines have simultaneous compensating demands,the SMES coil can be selectively controlled to compensate the preferable line according to the priority order of the line.The feasibility of the proposed scheme is technically verified to maintain the transient voltage stability in multiple-line voltage swell and sag cases caused by either output voltage fluctuations from external power sources or power demand fluctuations from local sensitive loads.The simulation results provide a technical basis to develop a cost-effective SMES-based IDC-DVR for use in various DC distribution networks.

An Advanced FMRL Controller for FACTS Devices to Enhance Dynamic Performance of Power Systems

The parameters of power system slowly change with time due to environmental effects or may change rapidly due to faults. It is preferable that the control technique in this system possesses robustness for various fault conditions and disturbances. The used flexible alternating current transmission system （FACTS） in this paper is an advanced super-conducting magnetic energy storage （ASMES）. Many control techniques that use ASMES to improve power system stability have been proposed. While fuzzy controller has proven its value in some applications, the researches applying fuzzy controller with ASMES have been actively reported. However, it is sometimes very difficult to specify the rule base for some plants, when the parameters change. To solve this problem, a fuzzy model reference learning controller （FMRLC） is proposed in this paper, which investigates multi-input multi-output FMRLC for time-variant nonlinear system. This control method provides the motivation for adaptive fuzzy control, where the focus is on the automatic online synthesis and tuning of fuzzy controller parameters （i.e., using online data to continually learn the fuzzy controller that will ensure that the performance objectives are met）. Simulation results show that the proposed robust controller is able to work with nonlinear and nonstationary power system （i.e., single machine-infinite bus （SMIB） system）, under various fault conditions and disturbances.

Superconducting energy storage technology-based synthetic inertia system control to enhance frequency dynamic performance in microgrids with high renewable penetration

With high penetration of renewable energy sources(RESs)in modern power systems,system frequency becomes more prone to fluctuation as RESs do not naturally have inertial properties.A conventional energy storage system(ESS)based on a battery has been used to tackle the shortage in system inertia but has low and short-term power support during the disturbance.To address the issues,this paper proposes a new synthetic inertia control(SIC)design with a superconducting magnetic energy storage(SMES)system to mimic the necessary inertia power and damping properties in a short time and thereby regulate the microgrid(µG)frequency during disturbances.In addition,system frequency deviation is reduced by employing the proportional-integral(PI)controller with the proposed SIC system.The efficacy of the proposed SIC system is validated by comparison with the conventional ESS and SMES systems without using the PI controller,under various load/renewable perturbations,nonlinearities,and uncertainties.The simulation results highlight that the proposed system with SMES can efficiently manage several disturbances and high system uncertainty compared to the conventional ESS and SMES systems,without using the PI controller.

Experimental Investigation and Modelling for the Optimisation of Conduction Cooled HTS Hybrid Current Leads for SMES

It′s important that HTS tapes have lower thermal conductivity and higher transversal resistivity in order to reduce the heat leaks conducted along the tapes and AC losses in the high temperature superconducting system conduction cooled by GM coolers. This paper presents an experimental investigation into the effects of pure Ag and AgAu alloys sheath materials on the properties of Bi(2223) multifilamentary tapes and the optimisation of conduction cooled hybrid current leads made from copper and Bi(2223)/Ag or Bi(2223)/AgAu tapes. The thermal conductivity of the tapes were measured by cryogenic steady heat flux method and the resistance was measured by using standard DC four probe method at low temperature. The results showed that the reduction of thermal conductivity by the addition of Au into the sheath material of Bi(2223) tapes was 65 0 0, 75 0 0 and 85 0 0 lower than that of pure Ag sheathed Bi(2223) tapes and the increase of resistivity was 4.9 , 10 and 19.4 times higher than that of pure Ag for the addition of 2.2 0 0, 5.7 0 0 and 10.7 0 0Au(atom ratio) respectively. And the study also attempts to optimise thermodynamically the conduction cooled hybrid current lead by using a developed model, which took the irreversibility of commercial GM coolers, the contact resistance and thermal conductance into account. Predictions from the model showed that AgAu alloys were suitable candidate materials to replace Ag as sheath material of Bi(2223) tapes applied in HTS current leads. In addition, Bi(2223)/AgAu was a suitable material to be applied as the HTS section of hybrid current leads in conduction cooled superconducting electric systems.

ODFF: Optimized Dual Fuzzy Flow Controller Based Voltage Sag Compensation for SMES-Based DVR in Power Quality Applications

The booming electronics itself carries an impact on power quality. Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) is proposed to enhance power quality in three-phase systems under various loads. This paper aimed to compensate the voltage sags under various faults in the grid systems. The SMES is selected as an energy storage unit to improve the capability of voltage sag compensation. Optimized Dual Fuzzy Flow (ODFF) logic controller is designed to prevent the voltage sag time during excessive phase voltage variation. Hence the proposed controller strategy reduces the total harmonic distortion during various fault conditions. To regulate the contribution of active power, the least possible value is improved using ODFF. The depth of voltage sags compensation is achieved by the over modulation and an iterative loop is designed in the control block. While protecting sensitive loads from voltage disturbances, and sags initiated by the power system, the proposed configuration is advantageous for an industrial implementation. It is found that the proposed method can result in more than 50% additional sag support time when compared with the previous methods such as PI and PSO. Utilizing MATLAB Simulink, compensation of sag and minimization of THD is established, and the simulation tests are performed to evaluate the performance of the proposed control method.

Mechanical characterization of a 10-MJ HTS SMES magnet wound by quasiisotropic strands and directly stacked tape conductors

A 10‐MJ‐class superconducting magnetic energy storage(SMES)magnet is designed and optimized in this study using quasi‐isotropic strands and stacked‐tape conductors.In order to ensure the stable operation of SMES systems,it is necessary to evaluate the mechanical properties risk caused by the Lorentz force.Therefore,in this study,the magnetic stress caused by the Lorentz force is analyzed using the finite element method.The results show that the tapes near the inner diameter of the magnet are subjected to a higher stress and require considerable support.Although the maximum stress is increased by two times due to the presence of the screening current,it is within the safety range.The screening current does not vanish after the discharge process.After discharge,the coil is still subjected to a stress on the other of a few MPa.

Optimized coordinated control of LFC and SMES to enhance frequency stability of a real multi-source power system considering high renewable energy penetration

With rapidly growing of Renewable Energy Sources(RESs)in renewable power systems,several disturbances influence on the power systems such as;lack of system inertia that results from replacing the synchronous generators with RESs and frequency/voltage fluctuations that resulting from the intermittent nature of the RESs.Hence,the modern power systems become more susceptible to the system instability than conventional power systems.Therefore,in this study,a new application of Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage(SMES)(i.e.,auxiliary Load Frequency Control(LFC))has been integrated with the secondary frequency control(i.e.,LFC)for frequency stability enhancement of the Egyptian Power System(EPS)due to high RESs penetration.Where,the coordinated control strategy is based on the PI controller that is optimally designed by the Particle Swarm Optimization(PSO)algorithm to minimize the frequency deviations of the EPS.The EPS includes both conventional generation units(i.e.,non-reheat,reheat and hydraulic power plants)with inherent nonlinearities,and RESs(i.e.,wind and solar energy).System modelling and simulation results are carried out using Matlab/Simulink^(■)software.The simulation results reveal the robustness of the proposed coordinated control strategy to preserve the system stability of the EPS with high penetration of RESs for different contingencies.

Loading experiment and thermal analysis for conduction cooled magnet of SMES system

China’s first 35 kJ high temperature superconducting magnetic energy storage(SMES)system with an experiment equipment was depicted.The dynamic heat analysis of the magnet of the SMES was conducted through the current load test on the directly cooled conduction magnet.The research results were as follows:when the converter charges and discharges the magnet for energy storage,the hysteresis loss is the main part of power loss,and contributes significantly to temperature rise;reducing the current frequency at the side of direct current is conducive to restraining temperature rise.The optimizing factors of the cool-guide structure were analyzed based on the heat stability theory,and it was found that the heat transfer of its key part(at the top of the magnet)must be strengthened to reduce the axial temperature difference of the magnet.

A mild one-step solvothermal route to truncated octahedral magnetite crystals

Perfect truncated octahedral magnetite crystals were successfully synthesized from FeCl3.6H2O and poly（acrylic acid） （PAA） in an alkaline ethylene glycol solution via a mild one-step solvothermal process. The structure and morphologies of the obtained products were characterized by powder X-ray diffraction （XRD）, Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy （SEM）, and transmission electron microscopy （TEM）. The effects of synthetic parameters including reaction temperature, reaction time, and the amount of alkali on the morphological evolution of the truncated octahedral magnetite crystals were systematically explored. 160℃ was found to be the optimum temperature for the formation of truncated octahedral magnetite crystals. Below 160 ℃, little magnetite was formed. Above 160℃, the truncated octahedrons were gradually transformed into irregular-shaped polyhedrons. Alkali is indispensable in promoting the formation of magnetite at mild temperatures. The truncated octahedral magnetite crystals were found to be ferromagnetic and had a saturation magnetization of about 83 emu/g.

Integration of PV system with SMES based on model predictive control for utility grid reliability improvement

This paper describes the integration of a photovoltaic (PV) renewable energy source with a superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) system. The integrated system can improve the voltage stability of the utility grid and achieve power leveling. The control schemes employ model predictive control (MPC), which has gained significant attention in recent years because of its advantages such as fast response and simple implementation. The PV system provides maximum power at various irradiation levels using the incremental conductance technique (INC). The interfaced grid side converter of the SMES can control the grid voltage by regulating its injected reactive power to the grid, while the charge and discharge operation of the SMES coil can be managed by the system operator to inject/absorb active power to/from the grid to achieve the power leveling strategy. Simulation results based on MATLAB/Simulink® software prove the fast response of the system control objectives in tracking the setpoints at different loading scenarios and PV irradiance levels, while the SMES injects/absorbs active and reactive power to/from the grid during various events to improve the voltage response and achieve power leveling strategy.

Tie-line Power Flow Control Method for Gridconnected Microgrids with SMES Based on Optimization and Fuzzy Logic

In an active distribution grid,renewable energy sources(RESs)such as photovoltaic(PV)and energy storage systems(e.g.,superconducting magnetic energy storage(SMES))can be combined with consumers to compose a microgrid(MG).The high penetration of PV causes high fluctuations of tie-line power flow and highly affects power system operations.This can lead to several technical problems such as voltage fluctuations and excessive power losses.In this paper,a fuzzy logic control based SMES method(FSM)and an optimized fuzzy logic control based SMES method(OFSM)are proposed for minimizing the tie-line power flow.Consequently,the fluctuations and transmission power losses are decreased.In FSM,SMES is used with a robust fuzzy logic controller(FLC)for controlling the tie-line power flow.An optimization model is employed in OFSM to simultaneously optimize the input parameters of the FLC and the reactive power of the voltage source converter(VSC)of SMES.The objective function of minimizing the tieline power flow is incorporated into the optimization model.Particle swarm optimization(PSO)algorithm is utilized to solve the optimization problem while the constraints of the utility power grid,VSC,and SMES are considered.The simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness and robustness of the proposed methods.

Load shedding scheme for an interconnected hydro-thermal hybrid system with SMES

The frequency of based on the load pattern the power system varies of the consumers. With continuous increase in the load, the frequency of the system keeps decreasing and may reach its minimum allowable limits. Further increase in the load will result in more frequency drop leading to the need of load shedding, if excess generation is not available to cater the need. This paper proposed a methodology in a hybrid thermal-hydro system for finding the required amount of load to be shed for setting the frequency of the system within its minimum allowable limits. The load shedding steps were obtained based on the rate of change of frequency with the increase in the load in both areas. The impact of superconducting magnetic energy storage （SMES） was obtained on load shedding scheme. The comparison of the results was presented on the two-area system.

Load shedding scheme for the two-area system with linear quadratic regulator

The power system is prone to many emergency conditions which may lead to emergency state of operation with decay in the system frequency. The dramatic change in the frequency can result in cascaded failure of the system. In order to avoid power system collapse, load shedding （LS） schemes are adopted with the optimal amount of load shed. This paper proposed a methodology in a two-area thermal-thermal system for finding the required amount of load to be shed for setting the frequency of the system within minimum allowable limits. The LS steps have been obtained based on the rate of change of frequency with the increase in load in steps. A systematic study has been conducted for three scenarios： the scheme with a conventional integral controller; the scheme with a linear quadratic regulator （LQR）; and the scheme with an LQR and superconducting magnetic energy storage devices （SMES）. A comparison of the results has been presented on the two-area system.